European literature

The corpus of narratives produced in Germany since 1943 about the battle of Stalingrad appears as a multifaceted "grand narrative" in which historiographical and mythical morphology coexist. The Nazi myth of Stalingrad contributed to shaping the cultural memory of the event during the war, and historians lately integrated that myth into the historical discourse about the "overcoming of the past" (Vergangenheitsbewältigung). In the meantime, hundreds of veterans published their witness-accounts about the great battle, blending the two spheres of history and myth on the level of storytelling. While historiographical discourse aims to consolidate positive knowledge of the battle in terms of chronology, witness-narratives blur chronological storytelling with the mythical archetypes of conquest, defeat, fall, and resurrection. I will examine the morphological characteristics of the "grand narrative" of Stalingrad by combining the notion of "structure" (Koselleck) with that of the narrative archetype (Frye) and by integrating these tools with the theory of adaptive and evolutional narratives (Carrol; Scalise-Sugyjama) to claim that the "grand narrative" of Stalingrad can be read as the mythic-historical account of how the German community survived defeat and was reborn from its own ashes.

"« C’est seulement aux retraductions qu’il incombe d’atteindre – de temps en temps – l’inaccompli », écrivait Antoine Berman en 1990. La retraduction est un phénomène de plus en plus fréquent dans notre époque, au point qu’on a parlé du XXIe siècle comme de l’âge de la retraduction. Et pourtant il s’agit d’un phénomène qui n’a pas encore reçu beaucoup d’attention de la part des traductologues. Pourquoi retraduit-on ? Les raisons peuvent être multiples : la nécessité d’actualiser le texte ; la volonté de donner une traduction meilleure que les traductions existantes, voire d’imposer une nouvelle voix canonique à un classique, ou encore de donner une nouvelle perspective au texte – et ainsi les différentes traductions deviennent les déclinaisons d’un même texte-source. Dès lors, la littérature se manifeste comme le terrain privilégié de la retraduction. C’est en effet dans la littérature que cette sorte d’insatisfaction herméneutique se produit plus fréquemment, résultat de l’interprétation toujours sélective de chaque traduction. Le volume réunit 27 contributions en français, organisées en 5 sections thématiques, avec un index de noms et une bibliographie critique sur la retraduction (par les soins d’Enrico Monti).
Textes de : Jean-René Ladmiral (Université Paris X), Yves Gambier (Université de Turku, Finlande), Françoise Wuilmart (ISTI, Bruxelles), Véronique Béghain (Université Bordeaux 3), Maryla Laurent (Université Lille 3), Martine Hennard Dutheil De La Rochère (Université de Lausanne, Suisse), Bernard Hoepffner (Traducteur, Pays Bas), Elżbieta Skibińska (Université de Wrocław, Pologne), Peter Schnyder (Université de Haute-Alsace), Jerzy Brzozowski (Université de Cracovie, Pologne), Tania Collani (Université de Haute-Alsace), Chiara Montini (traductrice littéraire), Rotraud Von Kulessa (Université de Augsburg, Allemagne), Fabio Regattin (Université de Bologne, Italie), Cristina Vignali (Université de Savoie), Justyna Łukaszewicz (Université de Wrocław, Pologne), Ida Porfido (Université de Bari, Italie), Peter André Bloch (Université de Haute-Alsace), Joanna Jakubowska-Cichon (Université de Wrocław, Pologne), Felipe Aparicio Nevado (Université de Haute-Alsace), Joanna Górnikiewicz (Université de Cracovie, Pologne), Franca Bruera (Université de Turin, Italie), Ana Pano Alaman (Université de Bologne, Italie), Natalia Paprocka (Université de Wrocław, Pologne), Ariane Luethi (ILLE/Université de Strasbourg), Enrico Monti (ILLE/Université de Bologne, Italie). "

The woman’s body is seen as an object of desire necessary to be possessed. Although the woman may seduce the man, this seduction is not in actuality an invitation for sex, or at least not an invitation to the penetrative kind. Failure to take hold of this body results to litost, the weaker type pushing the man to channel his misery by means of revenge on the beloved, and that which comes from the deplorable state of hypercelibacy. Both Sarrasine and the Student remain celibate at their story’s end.

Joan Barceló-Cullerés is one of the modernizers of Catalan children's and adolescent literature in the 1970-80s. The purpose of this paper is to ascertain if his genre specific novels fit the conventions of the ecocriticism field by analysing nature in six of them and the way in which they interact with the fantastic and the use of folklore, two of the elements that characterize the writer's poetics. The conclusions will aim to demonstrate how nature is an undeniable structural component in these works, denoting integration of the theme, with coherence in both the literary and ideological discourse of the author. Thereafter, reading Barceló-Cullerés’ children’s and adolescent books from an ecoliterary perspective, seems suffictly justified. This will present both an innovative approach and a contribution towards opening a new research path, within the before mentioned works, in order to reintroduce them and bring them closer to the young readers of the 21st century through the use of current environmental issues that can be contextualised, which are now more ever-present than ever.
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Joan Barceló i Cullerés es uno de los renovadores de la literatura infantil y juvenil catalana en 1970-80. El objetivo de este estudio es determinar la posible pertenencia de sus novelas LIJ al ámbito discursivo de la ecocrítica mediante el análisis de la naturaleza en seis de ellas y cómo esta interactúa con lo fantástico y el uso del folklore, dos de los elementos constitutivos de la poética del escritor. Las conclusiones evidenciarán que la naturaleza es un componente estructural en las obras estudiadas y que se integra con coherencia en el discurso literario e ideológico del autor, por lo que su lectura desde el campo de la ecoliteratura es más que acertada. Se trata de un estudio innovador, que permite reintroducir y aproximar estas novelas al público juvenil del siglo XXI a través de los conflictos ecológicos que tematizan, hoy más acuciantes que ayer.

Love’s victors succeed by conquering the beloved’s heart. A conquest is the subjugation of an enemy by combat, or overcoming an obstacle to gain possession of something by force whether physically or morally. Although a conquest is defined as victory rather than defeat, the lovers Werther and Onegin can be called conquerors themselves: taking up their arms into battle, bearing in mind the promise of attaining who they desire, but in the end failing in their mission. It is, nonetheless, a conquest in its own right albeit a failure. It is a fight to the finish, even unto death. Also worthy to take note is another name for Pestilence, a horseman of the apocalypse often depicted riding a white horse: its personification can be called Conquest, the bringer of violent disease.

Gegenwartsliteratur: A German Studies Yearbook, vol. 17, 2018: pp. 115-133.

978-3-95809-644-8

In this article I propose the notion of precarious intimacies as entry point into the representation of the political in Emine Sevgi Özdamar’s work. Through an analysis of Die Brücke vom Goldenen Horn, I explore intimacies as sites of transformation and political potentiality in the novel, as spaces that nurture political solidarities and spaces in which their loss is most keenly felt. Reading for precarious intimacies reveals aesthetic strategies that highlight the politically generative capacity of intimacy in the face of precarity, but also enacts a politics of interpretation that might challenge the conditions of precarity. I thus both examine the politics and aesthetics of intimacy as represented in the text, and consider the interpretive work of reading intimacy politically.

Ein weiterer Zug seiner Originalität liegt in der Art, wie er deutsche und französische Kultur verarbeitet und zusammenführt. Ich wüßte keinen Kritiker in Europa, der mit derselben Sympathie und demselben Verständnis über Madame de Noailles und Simmel, über Marcel Proust und Max Scheler zu schreiben vermöchte.

ABSTRACT
This article investigates how Gabriele D’Annunzio’s The Triumph of
Death brings together Nietzsche’s ideas and Wagner’s music and
interweaves them with the motifs of literary Decadence and the
author’s own particular sexual politics. The novel is an experimental
text striving to be a Gesemtkunstswerk, an integrated work that
incorporates music, painting, poetry, regional folklore, and private
thoughts about personal and national power. I discuss the novel’s
themes of violent sexuality and the anxiety of powerlessness and
explore their implications for the fascist political aesthetics in which
D’Annunzio played a pioneering role.

Embedded in Fyodor Dostoyevsky’s Notes from the Underground and Franz Kafka’s The Trial are the literary symbolisms of the events and happenings in the Russian society and German society. Being one of the early existentialist novels, Notes from the Underground presents itself as an excerpt from the rambling memoirs of a bitter, isolated, unnamed narrator (generally referred to by critics as the Underground Man)  and The Trial narrates the story of a man arrested and prosecuted by a remote inaccessible authority, with the nature of his crime revealed neither to him nor to the reader. Therefore, this research attempts a discourse of the symbolisms of “the underground” and “the court” in Dostoyevsky’s narrative and Kafka’s novel through the lens of New Historicism.

As the first prominent Yiddish writer from the Polish territories of the Pale of Settlement, I. L. Peretz (1852-1915) was from the beginning of his career an outlier in the geographical politics of Yiddish culture. He dramatized this difference in a number of ways: insisting on the linguistic difference of his Yiddish from that of his colleagues, dispensing with the overt appeals to oral discourse which Yiddish literature had adopted and adapted from Russian literary models, and demanding of himself and his readers a sensitivity to literary style on the highest level of sophistication. As an outlier, these aesthetic differences find representation in analogously exceptional approaches to the question of literary space. Unlike his primary colleagues, and competitors, in Yiddish literature of the day-Sh. Y. Abramovitsh (c. 1835-1917) and Sholem Aleichem (1859-1916)-Peretz dispenses with the convention of creating prototypical, imaginary shtetlekh in order to situate his stories, including his most fantastic and parodic narratives, in a verifiable Eastern European geography. He is moreover the first great Yiddish writer to describe these traditional communities from a perspective of the writer living in a modern metropolis, even if the metropolis itself figures in comparatively few of his narratives. What emerges from these strategies is a writer who situates himself not only as an "outlier" with respect to the linguistic and literary conventions of his contemporaries, but also with respect to the territories he describes. His narratives are neither traditional nor modern, neither metropolitan nor peripheral, neither realistic nor phantasmagoric, but in each instance somewhere in between and, more significantly, constantly in a state of flux among these contrasting locations. This essay will trace the narrational techniques and representations of space in Peretz's fiction to demonstrate the dislocations which determine his best writing and provide a model for the leading trends in Yiddish modernism that follow in his wake. ___________________

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s poem Excelsior was published in 1841 and very soon came to be strongly associated with European Alpine mountaineering.  Longfellow was influenced by German cultural approaches to mountains, mediated via the literature of the both the Sturm und Drang movement, German Idealism and pan-European Romanticism.  The poem briefly recounts the tale of a young man struggling through Alpine peaks and passes to an unspecified fate near the Great St. Bernard Pass.  Located by the faithful hounds of the monastery and half buried in snow, he still clutches in his icy hand ‘That banner with a strange device/Excelsior!’  Longfellow constructed his aesthetics of the infinite from Pre-Romantic, Sublime and Gothic elements but the literary topos of Excelsior owes most to German literary and philosophical sensibilities.  This reverence for mountain landscapes and their symbolic importance was reinforced in German culture by romantic nationalism and the literature of young Germans’ self-discovery that had romanticized the ‘wild call of the mountains.’  The cult of doomed and evanescent youth is a feature of the Sturm und Drang.  Above all, German Idealist thought found in the struggle to climb a mountain and attain a summit the perfect metaphor for the dialectical method and the teleological drive towards the Ideal, exemplified in Goethe’s Faust.  The motifs of ascent, absorption into the Absolute and engagement in “aspiration without object” all place this within the domain of philosophical idealism.  The phrase “Excelsior!” was adopted by mountaineers in the nineteenth century, Le Club Alpin Français choosing it as the club motto at the club’s foundation in 1874. It attained considerable cultural force amongst German speaking Alpinists experimenting with new forms of Lebensphilosophie that emphasized the cultivation of the will.  The phrase lost much of its power through overuse, debasement, parody and ridicule but remains an epiphenomenal presence in literary appropriations of mountaineering.

In 1951 Swedish writer Stig Dagerman wrote an autobiographical essay titled "Our Need for Consolation is Insatiable." It is a remarkable poetic meditation on the life-and-death stakes of the literary imagination from a writer who was likely suffering from an undiagnosed bipolar disorder, fighting for his life through one depressive episode after another. Written when his critical reputation and fame as Sweden’s greatest new literary phenom had been firmly established following a remarkable outpouring of critically acclaimed work in the late 1940s, the essay marked a point in time when the tides had turned for Dagerman, who now struggled with the opposite of this productive streak in the form of a debilitating bout of writer’s block that would eventually contribute to his suicide two years later. "Our Need for Consolation is Insatiable" lays bare the writer’s fragile psyche, not only his faltering ego but his selfless and far from sure-footed ambition to offer something of lasting beauty and meaning to a world indifferent to his very existence. While writing the essay, Dagerman managed to rise temporarily from the depths of his depression and identify the sources of his own consolation and hope in terms that have continued to resonate powerfully with many readers, and fellow writers, over the following 60 years.

Originally published in 1952 in the improbable venue of Husmodern (a magazine dedicated to home economics for Swedish housewives, analogous to American magazines like Good Housekeeping or Better Homes and Gardens), the essay was a profound response to a trivial commission from the magazine’s editors, who asked Dagerman to send them “something on the art of living.” The soul- and psyche-searching tour de force that Dagerman composed was not likely what the editors had in mind, but to their credit—and also possibly owing to his celebrity—they published the essay as written. The essay has since been translated into 10 languages and published / reprinted a great many times. This is the first literary translation of the essay into English.

The fifteen operas of Russian composer César Antonovich Cui (1835-1918) heretofore have never been addressed in a comprehensive fashion. For the first time this study analyzes together Cui's six full-length operas (Prisoner of the Caucasus, William Ratcliff, Angelo, Le Flibustier, The Saracen, and The Captain's Daughter) and his shorter stage works (a comedy, one-act tragedies, and children's operas). Using evidence in printed sources, it examines their musico-dramatic features within the context of the conditions under which they were composed and performed. These conditions include the reception accorded them and their relation to the works of Cui's contemporaries and to his own operatic ideals. Several indications of likely influences from other models or genres have been posited or identified in such figures ranging from Meyerbeer to Balakirev, as have likely exchanges of musical ideas between Cui and other composers, especially Rimsky-Korsakov. This study shows that Cui and his operas maintained a persistent, if not pervasive, position in the musical life of the era, and that to a certain extent his works bore relation to contemporaneous historical events and political circumstances. His position is both enriched and complicated by his intense and polemical activity in music journalism, wherein among other things he promoted the esthetic ideals of his circle and advocated for the works of Russian composers. The study uncovers, and at times reinterprets, the problematic and interesting aspects of Cui's musico-dramatic style — which incorporated certain stylistic features characteristic of Russian art music — in recognition of his avoidance of Russian subjects (except primarily Pushkin). These factors are intertwined with the shifting tastes of his Russian audience, for whom most of the operas were composed. As this study demonstrates, Cui's primary operatic achievements lie in being the first member of the "mighty handful" to have an opera performed (William Ratcliff); being the first of them to have an opera performed in the West (Prisoner of the Caucasus) and the first Russian to premiere an opera in Paris (Le Flibustier); completion of Dargomyzhsky's Stone Guest (with Rimsky-Korsakov) and Musorgsky's Fair at Sorochintsy; and his considerable contribution to the repertory of children's opera in Russia.

A short monograph on volume 6 of Knausgård’s [Knausgaard's] Min kamp [My struggle] published in Norwegian in 2011 but not available in English until 2018 (after the time of writing of this piece).  The commentary is designed for readers with little or no Norwegian, and is proposed to them in the light of the readerly response to the volumes of the Norwegian's long work which have already appeared.  Although in 2019 Anglophonic readers can read the volume in their own language, I hope this is a helpful contribution.  It includes for example chapters on Kierkegaard, Hitler, the confessionalist school and cultural memory.

The universal validity of the poem has outlived its medieval Christianity. The allegorical, symbolic and mystical meanings of the spirit of a man on his journey through life that finds all the pitfalls that could prevent him from reaching his ultimate salvation. This echoes as a warning to our weakness, folly and insincerity. One could argue that Dante achieved in one work what many writers could never reach: a comprehensive book about the world, a complete statement on the human condition and the history of mankind.

Le volume réunit et intègre les interventions présentées lors des Journées d’études mulhousiennes d’octobre 2008. Le but scientifique du colloque et du volume est d’entamer une réflexion approfondie sur l’état de la critique littéraire actuelle, en donnant la parole à des spécialistes du monde universitaire, éditorial, journalistique. L’enjeu principal est d’étudier ensemble comment concrétiser les atouts d’une approche délibérément européenne de la littérature pour donner un nouveau souffle à une critique littéraire qui passe trop souvent au second plan, réagit le plus souvent, au lieu d’agir. Le volume sera complété par une bibliographie raisonnée sur la critique littéraire européenne au XXe siècle. Articles de : P. Schnyder (ILLE), T. Collani (ILLE), G. Polizzi (ILLE), P.A. Bloch (ILLE), G. Fontaine (Lille), F. Toudoire-Surlapierre (ILLE), Fl. Fix (Dijon), N. Surlapierre (Belfort), J. Bel (Lille), M. Laurent (Lille), Ph. Braz (Berlin), J.-Ch. Aeschlimann (Bâle), M. Comte (Lausanne), A. Vanoncini (Bâle), M. Dijkgraaf (Amsterdam), A. Kalėda (Vilnius), L. Devoldere (Rekkem), S. Beres (Wroclaw), J.-J. Queloz (Bâle), I. Pop (Roumanie).

In the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, many new techniques for remaining healthy have been introduced, but there is little public discussion about how to live well. “Social distancing” is good medicine for the body, but the health of the spirit depends on wisdom. We are all in strange territory, and under such conditions we can only look to the past for counsel.
In this book, the philosopher Dustin Peone offers reflections on ten literary classics set during plague times. From each work, he draws one central insight that is applicable to our situation today. These insights are lessons in prudence, taught by the sages of the past. This is a book about how to pursue the good life during a pandemic and what it means to flourish in dark times.

Contemporary Developments in Emergent Literatures and the New Europe seeks to explore changing conceptions of European identity, and the possible ways in which we can speak of a «N/new Europe», in the context of a discussion of the concept of literary emergence. It gathers a group of both established and early career researchers, from diverse parts of Europe, US and South Africa, whose readings of literary texts describe a range of deterritorialized, hybrid, and heterogeneous identities. Tracing paths from the West of Ireland to Albania, from London to Mecca and Argentina, the essays collected here reveal a Europe that is porous and multiethnic, a Europe of the mind whose spatial co-ordinates exceed national boundaries and divisions. This volume provokes us to reassess our conceptions of the «Old» Europe, to draw from the new voices we hear in its pages a new landscape, or a palimpsestic overlaying of distinct maps.

Throughout the nineteenth century, Maskilic journals increased their publication of anti-Hasidic satires. From the eighteen-sixties onward, this literature came primarily as a response to the revival in the publishing of Hasidic hagiography and to the spread of Hasidism into new territory. To this point, no complete review or even general survey has been performed on this extensive polemical literature, despite the fact that it has much to teach us about Hasidism and the Haskalah in those years. We are not speaking of an insignificant bibliographical lacuna, but of a disregard for an entire field of research which would shed light not only on a forgotten chapter of modern Hebrew and Yiddish literature but also on an important chapter in the relationships between Maskilim and Hasidim in that period and the genesis and development of the different streams of Hasidism. This Maskilic literature intended to do more than eradicate Hasidism; it aimed to strengthen the self-consciousness of the individual Maskilim who found themselves alone in Hasidic territory. Paradoxically, the literature documented the very movement it intended to eradicate from the world. The distorted reflection displayed in the anti-Hasidic literature does more than present a caricature of its subject -- it conceals hitherto unknown elements about the nature and development of the Hasidic movement. The present article deals with one such case, a satire on Bratslav Hasidism from 1863, which has at its core a Maskilic satirical text written by Yehiel Meller on pilgrimage to the grave of R. Nahman of Bratslav in Uman.





כתבי עת של משכילים לאורך המאה התשע עשרה הרבו לפרסם סאטירות בגנותה של החסידות. משנות הששים ואילך באה ספרות זו בעיקר כתגובה להתעוררות הדפסת ספרות השבחים החסידית ולהתפשטות החסידות במרחבים חדשים. לא קיימת עד עתה סקירה שלימה, ואף לא מיפוי כללי, של אותה ספרות פולמוסית ענפה, על אף שיש בה ללמד הרבה על דרכי החסידות וההשכלה באותן שנים.  לא מדובר רק בחסרון ביבליוגרפי שאין לו משמעות, אלא בהתעלמות משדה מחקר רב עניין שעשוי להאיר לא רק על פרק נשכח בספרות עברית ויידיש החדשה אלא גם על פרק חשוב ביחסים בין משכילים לחסידים באותה תקופה, ועל דרכי צמיחתם, פיצולם והתפתחותם של זרמים שונים בחסידות. הייתה זו ספרות שיותר מאשר נועדה לבער את החסידות נועדה לחזק את תודעתם העצמית של המשכילים הבודדים במרחבים החסידיים; ספרות שבאופן פרדוקסלי תיעדה תנועה אותה חפצו לבער מן העולם. הבבואה המעוותת בה התהדרה הסאטירה האנטי חסידית לא רק הציגה דימוי – אלא טומנת בחובה הצבעה על אלמנטים חדשים ועל התפתחויות בחסידות. במקרה אחד ממין זה הנוגע לחסידות ברסלב בשנות השישים של המאה התשע עשרה עוסק המאמר. שלפנינו - שעיקרו מהדורה של טקסט משכילי שכתב יחיאל מלר - בשנת 1863 - על העלייה לקבר ר' נחמן מברסלב באומן
"""

----Cite this: Triaridou, Nina. “Lamia, Sirens, and Female Monsters: Feminist Reframings of Classical Myth in 19th Century Literature.” Antigone Journal, 31 March 2022, https://antigonejournal.com/2022/03/lamia-sirens-keats-andersen/

----From Medusa and Lamia to Scylla and the Sirens, Ancient Greek mythology abounds with terrifying female monsters, marked by their bodily hybridity – part human, part not. But what were the gender politics that resulted in monstrosity being linked with human femininity? To tackle this question, I’d like to focus on the origins of two popular female monsters, Lamia and the Sirens, and explore how they became associated with monsters, in both antiquity and more modern literature. For me, their subsequent shift from antagonists to sympathetic female figures in the 19th century emerges is especially interesting: both John Keats’s poem “Lamia” (1819) and Hans Christian Andersen’s fairytale The Little Mermaid (1837) can be usefully explored from a feminist perspective, especially because both these works have exerted a positive influence on the representation of female monsters in contemporary culture, including Pre-Raphaelite painting and Disney's The Little Mermaid (Ariel).

Volume curato nell'ambito del progetto "Stranierità - Foreignness - Fremdheit" (finanziato dal Bando dell’Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna "Accordi di Cooperazione Internazionale con Istituzioni di Istruzione Superiore", disp. dirigenziale 434/2017, prot. 11875 del 03/02/2017). Si vale del contributo di studiosi provenienti da università italiane, europee e nordamericane, e affronta con metodo interdisciplinare la definizione dell'idea di "straniero" nelle culture classiche, nelle lingue e letterature europee moderne e in campo sociologico e giurisprudenziale. Tutti i contributi sono stati sottoposti a double blind peer review.

https://www2.classics.unibo.it/eikasmos/index.php?page=doc_pdf/studi_online/03_alvbatcol

The1964 play Marat/Sade by Peter Weiss easily lends itself to a psychoanalytic reading. The lead character called Marat is a paranoiac. The director of the play in this play-within-a-play is Sade, the notorious eighteenth century Marquis after whom is coined the psychological term Sadist. Weiss wrote in the aftermath of the holocaust and his plays represent the theatre of cruelty. The present analysis is a psychoanalytic study of the play, chiefly the character of Marat as a delusional in the lines of the French psychoanalyst, Jacques Lacan. Here the actor that is named Marat is looked at as suffering from paranoia, a madness/psychosis where he cannot be expected to play any roles. He is being himself and still effectively appears to imitate the legendary leader of the French Revolution Jean-Paul Marat.
Keywords: Peter Weiss, French Revolution, Paranoia, Jacques Lacan, Marat/Sade, psychoanalysis, The Theatre of Cruelty, Sadism, play-within-a-play

Κυρίαρχες καλλιτεχνικές τάσεις στο δεύτερο μισό του 19ου ήταν ο ρεαλισμός και ο νατουραλισμός. Όμως ως αντίδραση στα κινήματα αυτά και στην επίπλαστη αστική ευημερία ήταν το ξέσπασμα πολιτιστικής επανάστασης σε τομείς των τεχνών, όπως η ποίηση, η ζωγραφική και η μουσική. Ειδικότερα στη λογοτεχνία και στην ποίηση εκδηλώθηκαν διάφορα καλλιτεχνικά ρεύματα τα οποία συμπλέκονταν μεταξύ τους. Στη Γαλλία, στη Ρωσία και στο Βέλγιο αναπτύχθηκε κυρίως το κίνημα του συμβολισμού. Μετά το τέλος του Α΄ Παγκοσμίου Πολέμου, ως αντίδραση στην κοινωνία που δεν κατάφερε να αναχαιτίσει την καταστροφή αυτή και παίρνοντας στοιχεία από τον συμβολισμό αναπτύσσεται στο Παρίσι το πρωτοποριακό επαναστατικό λογοτεχνικό κίνημα του υπερρεαλισμού.