Ottoman Navy

This research provides a good overview of the importance of arsenals in the Early Modern naval, military, economic, and social history of the Mediterranean, focusing on four case studies in a comparative framework. Thanks to the research on the arsenals of Constantinople/Istanbul (Ottoman Empire / Turkey), Birgu (Malta), Messina, (Italy) and Barcelona (Spain) now we gain a much better knowledge on a wider overview.

Son yirmi yılda Osmanlı araştırmalarında konu yelpazesi genişledi, yeni yöntemler devreye girdi; başta sosyal tarih, iktisat tarihi, askeri tarih ve şehir tarihi gibi alanlarda yeni yönelimler ortaya çıktı. Maddi kültür ve servet, tüketim, kadın/cinsiyet, harem, ticaret ve finans, yemek, ayanlık, kuruluş, kimlik, eğitim, çevre, sınır ve serhat çalışmaları, içinde bulunduğumuz yüzyılda ilgi gören ve üzerine özgün eserler verilen konular oldu.

Osmanlı tarihçiliğine yön veren, uzman tarihçilere ait metinlerden oluşan bu kitap, tarihçiliğimizin son yıllardaki seyrini izlemek ve yeni çalışma alanları keşfetmek için benzersiz bir imkân sunuyor. Metinler, Osmanlı tarihini,n kitabî kaynaklarından harem çalışmalarına, askeri tarihten deniz tarihi araştırmalarına, şeriyye sicillerinin Osmanlı araştırmaları için öneminden iktisat tarihi araştırmalarının serencamına, tıp tarihi çalışmalarındaki sorunlardan sınır araştırmalarına kadar oldukça geniş bir yelpazede sunuluyorele alıyor. Abdülkadir Özcan, Ahmet Yaşar Ocak, Ahmet Tabakoğlu, Ali Akyıldız, Berch Berberoglu, Feridun Emecen, Gábor Ágoston, İdris Bostan, Mehmet Akif Aydın, Michael Ursinus, Gabor Agoston, Feridun Emecen, Ali Akyıldız, Nil Sarı, Mehmet Akif Aydın, Michael Ursinus, Berch Berberoglu gibi yetkin akademisyenlerin Osmanlı tarihinin çeşitli alanlarının mevcut durumuyla ilgili tespitlerini ve bundan sonra yapılacak çalışmalar için önerilerini içermesiyle de başucu kaynağı niteliği taşıyor.

Arif Bilgin ve M. Bedizel Aydın’ın editörlüğünü yaptığı “Osmanlı Tarihçiliği: Osmanlı Araştırmalarınane Yön Veren Konuşmalar”, hem tarih öğrencilerinin hem de araştırma tutkunlarının büyük keyif alarak okuyacakları bir çalışma…

Türk Tarihi'nin en büyük deniz zaferi, bundan 477 yıl önce modern Yunanistan'ın Epir Bölgesi'nde yer alan Adriyatik Denizi'ne kıyısı bulunan Preveze açıklarında cereyan etti. Barbaros Hayrettin Paşa ile Andre Doria, Akdeniz'in hâkimiyeti adına tüm güçlerini ve maharetlerini ortaya koydu. Şiddetli geçen çarpışmanın ardından Preveze sularında dalgalanmaya devam eden Osmanlı bayrağı oldu. Evren Mercan " "

Presentation made during the Third International Congress of Eurasian Maritime History - Istanbul, 10/05/2018

The last quarter of the 17th century witnessed the transformation of the Ottoman navy from an oared into a sailing battlefleet. That mutation had happened under visionary and able seamen, first and foremost Mezzo Morto Hüseyin Pasha and his immediate successors. By that time, sailing warships, which were products of the West European maritime powers, were already standardized into well regulated classes. However, the Ottoman navy was an institution which served in very different strategic conditions. As a result, despite the inevitable technology transfer from Western Europe to initiate the building of sailing warships, Ottoman warship design rapidly differentiated from their Western counterparts in many crucial respects. This differentiation also found its way in terminology as well; and the Ottoman navy developed its idiosyncratic classification system. Unfortunately, even the current level of completed research from the available Ottoman archival material is not satisfactory to present a clear cut definition of that terminology. Another important problem encountered in the study of Ottoman naval technology is, the question of standardized designs and building practices in the age of sail. Ottoman archives do not yield any clear orders, regulations or set of plans for the standardization of shipbuilding before the reforms of Selim III. Fortunately, archives of foreign countries which had intense contact with the Ottomans at sea -chiefly Venice, Russia, Malta and France- yield a significant amount of both written and visual material which help us to fill the gaps in our knowledge. This presentation aims to offer a new and clear cut classification of Ottoman navy warships before Selim III and argues that well before the Nizam-ı Cedid era; more or less standardization was achieved in the Ottoman naval shipbuilding.

Özet Birinci Dünya Savaşı'na dâhil olma sürecinde Osmanlı Devleti'ne en önemli katkıyı kendisine ait olmayan zırhlı gemiler yapmıştı. Bu zırhlılar, Alman Akdeniz Filo Komutanlığı'na bağlı Goeben Dretnotu ile Breslau Kruvazörü idi. Alman zırhlıları, İngiliz ve Fransız donanmalarının takibinde Cezayir-İtalya-Türkiye rotasında seyrederek Çanakkale Boğazı önlerine kadar gelmişti. Savaşın seyrine doğrudan etki edecek gelişmeler de bu gemilerin Osmanlı Devleti karasularına girişi ile başlamıştı. Türk-Alman ittifak antlaşmasının hemen sonrasında meydana gelen bu olay, uluslararası bir krize neden olmuştu. Osmanlı Devleti'ne ait olmayan savaş gemilerine boğazların kapalılığı ilkesi, 1878 tarihli Berlin Antlaşması ile uluslararası hukuk normlarına göre düzenlenmişti. Osmanlı Devleti tarafından Alman zırhlılarının Çanakkale Boğazı'ndan içeri alınması, ilgili antlaşmanın ihlali anlamına gelmekteydi. Uluslararası hukuk kurallarına göre, yabancı savaş gemileri ya 24 saat içinde tarafsız devletin karasularını terk edecek ya da mürettebatı gözaltına alınarak gemilerin silahları söküldükten sonra savaş süresince güvenilir bir limanda alıkonulacaktı. Avrupa Devletlerinin diplomatik baskısına maruz kalan Osmanlı devlet adamları, mevcut krizi farklı bir yolla çözüme kavuşturacaklardı. İngiltere'ye sipariş edilip paraları peşin ödenmesine rağmen Osmanlıya teslim edilmeyen Sultan Osman-ı Evvel ve Reşadiye zırhlılarının yerine Alman savaş gemilerinin 80 milyon Mark karşılığında satın alındığı aldatmacası dünya kamuoyuna duyurulacaktı. Gerçekte ise savaşın sonuna kadar bir satış söz konusu olmayacaktı. Ayrıca savaş süresince zırhlı gemilerin kontrolü ve icraatları ile ilgili inisiyatif Alman İmparatorluğu'nda bulunacaktı. Dolayısıyla bu satış aldatmacasının neticesinde Avrupalı Devletlerin itirazları son bulacak, devam eden Birinci Dünya Savaşı'nın seyri önemli ölçüde değişecekti. Birinci Dünya Savaşı'nın Seyrini Değiştiren Goeben ve Breslau Gerçeği isimli bu çalışmada, dünya kamuoyunun sahte bir satış beyanıyla nasıl aldatıldığı arşiv belgeleri ve hatıratlarla desteklenen çalışmalar ışığında ortaya konulacaktır.

The War of Cyprus (1570–71) took place within the framework of the Fourth Ottoman–Venetian War, which was concluded with the naval Battle of Lepanto and the peace treaty signed by the two contenders in 1573. This essay deals with the consequences of the War of Cyprus, focusing on a category of veterans that comprised native Cypriot non-professional combatants and militiamen who had fought alongside the Venetian overlords, as well as subjects of the Serenissima originating from former territories (such as the Morea) in the Venetian Maritime State (stato da mar), who served as professional military personnel in the army of Cyprus (stradioti). The principal issues explored in this essay are: firstly, their captivity in the hands of the Ottomans and the procedures for their liberation; and secondly, their subsequent claims to restitution through their recruitment into the Venetian armed forces. The sources on which the study is based are the veterans’ unpublished petitions to the Venetian authorities, in combination with other types of documents (notarial documents, court cases, deliberations by various Councils and magistracies etc.) from the Archivio di Stato di Venezia.

Cite as/ Atıf: Taş, M. (2020). 18. Yüzyıl Osmanlı Donanmasında kereste temininde karşılaşılan sorunlar ve çözüm yolları. Turkish Studies-History, 15(2), 677-695. https://dx. Abstract: The Ottoman navy entered a structural transformation in the 18th century with the force of external dynamics. The basis of this transformation is the transition from galley type ships, the basic warship of previous centuries, to galleon type ships. This transition included both increasing the number of galleon type ships in different shipyards such as Istanbul, Sinop, Mytilene and Rhodes, and using them effectively in wars with rival states. With the age of geographical discoveries, the fact that the use of galleon became dominant in Europe and that the European states used these ships extensively in their activities such as war, transportation and trade made this transformation obligatory for the Ottoman Empire. Especially the 1645-1669 Cretan Wars with the Venetians made this imperative urgent. The transition to galleon technology brought with it a new logistics, labor and finance organization. In addition to being a large and wide warship of Galleon, the need for a large number of masters with different abilities for its construction has increased the need for qualified workforce. Compared to the importance they had on the ships of the previous era, sailors, carpenters, burgerers, carvers, overhead workers and tuggers gained more importance in this period. The ability of the galleon to carry a large number of balls on its side increased the importance of the artillery, which is one of the warrior elements. All this has led to the opening of new expenditure and expense gates. The material used by carpenters, burgers and carvers, who make up the skilled workforce, is timber. Timber is used extensively in the manufacture of spinal linings of the galleon, ship porters, porthole covers, captain kiosks and booms that allow the use of sails. The Ottoman Empire realized the timber procurement through a procurement system that it created with its own methods. The basis of this system is the concept of "ocaklık" and "avarız". In this system; There are shipyard assistants, timber assistants, galleon architects and bailiffs, as well as people from many boilers. The duties of these people were determined in detail with the law and decrees, and special revenues from the state budget were duly used when the time and place came for financing of this work. Structured Abstract: One of the main materials used in the construction of galleon is timber. The supply of timber from adequate and accessible resources is an important issue in the construction and equipment of the navies. Because the success of the state in the struggle against Venice and Russia in the Mediterranean and Black Sea in this century was dependent on the navy going through a structural transformation from the galley to the galleon. During the 1645-1669 Cretan wars that began in the middle of the 17th century, the state's mind realized this. With the Navy Order of 1701, which was issued with the efforts of Mezomorto Hüseyin Pasha, the transformation became a systematic state policy and many gallions built both in Tersane-i Âmire in Istanbul and shipyards such as Kastamonu, Sinop and Rhodes were launched. This transformation

As strange as it may seem, the escape of Goeben and Breslau to the Dardanelles brought great relief to the British Admiralty. As if a heavy stone fell from their heart: Nothing menaced any more their control of the Mediterranean Sea, and the French shipping could launch unmolested transfer of the troops from North Africa to the Western front. Their Lordships had painted a glamorous picture of cowardly escape, and consequent inglorious internment of the German Mediterranean Squadron.

ABSTRACT
The thin threads that make up the rope used on the ship are called wires. In maritime terminology, this material is called flasha. Süleyman Nutki describes it as the name given to thin twine formed by twisting the hemp fiber to the right in his work named Kamus-ı Bahri and reports that it is durable enough to pull a weight up to 100 pounds The rope and the rope formed by twisting the wire are widely used in the throwing and pulling of the lancers into the water, the connection of the ships to the port and the fixing of the parts including the sails and the booms of the ships. and fixed to a point with ropes.
Hemp is the main raw material from which the wire is produced in the Ottoman Empire. One of the most common places where hemp is produced is the Middle Black Sea region. Accidents such as Samsun, Çarşamba, Persembe, Ünye and Fatsa, which are located here and within the Canik sanjak, produce hemp widely and the wire that the navy needs. With the transition to galleon technology in the 8th century, the amount of wire required by the navy increased significantly. For example, the amount of wire demanded from Canik in the first quarter of the 18th century increased to 10,000 cantars (564,490 kg). The reason for this increase was that galleon type ships sailed ships compared to galleys. 19 accidents on the Canik starboard were assigned as a quarry in return for the killing and nüzul. In other words, these accidents were obliged to process the certain amount of wire demanded from them every year and deliver them to the state instead of paying the said taxes.
This method is also used in the procurement of other naval materials such as timber, sail cloth, resin, tar, pitch and rusks. In this method, the inhabitants of a certain region are obliged to provide the navy materials requested by the state at fair prices, but However, they wereexempted from some customary taxes such as avarız and nüzul. The residents of the selected region consisted of workers and masters specialized in the supply of the said materials. The current market price was a kind of "fixed price" determined by the state. There was no price on which the parties agreed. It was not a price formed according to demand. It was a price that aimed to meet the production costs of the producer at a minimum level and was formed by the unilateral will of the state. The purpose of determining this price was to provide these materials to the state with the least expense without making the producer suffer. However, these prices determined by the state were unstable market conditions It has turned into a mechanism that victimizes the producer due to the depreciation of money and the continuous price increases in production inputs.
Hemp wire purchased from Canik and its surroundings and other regions was transported to Istanbul by loading the ships. In order to prevent any accidents due to adverse weather conditions, it was paid attention that the ships set out before the winter season (season-i sea).At times, the hemp wire to be delivered to the Tersane-i Amire was transported from Canik to Istanbul by horse and mules.
Difficulties were sometimes experienced in the supply of the requested amount of wire. The lack of money to the public by those assigned to purchase hemp wire on behalf of the state or demanding more than the requested wire and selling it for their own gain created uneasiness in the public. Allegations of such corruption were investigated by the state on site.
Keywords: Ottoman Navy, Wire, Hemp, 18th Century.

Thousands of enslaved Georgian youth were sold in Ottoman slave markets throughout 17th and 18th centuries, however, some of them managed to voluntarily migrate towards Ottoman capital and major provinces in search for employment and better career opportunities. Hassan ibn Yusuf Ahiskali or Hassan Dey of Algeria (1791-1798) was one such young Georgians, born in historical province of Meskheti (or as Ottoman administration called it Ahiska). The article focuses on major events in life of Hassan Dey of Algeria, starting from his early career in navy, where he skillfully managed Ottoman navy operations as a head of Algerian corsair warships in Black Sea. Hassan was promoted to various elite Ottoman administrative positions in Algeria. At one point he delivered victorious message to the Sultan and was captured by Spanish navy on the way back. Hassan was released with the help of King of France and was promoted to highest positions before he was appointed to be the ruler of the city and regency of Algeria. He was destined to rule Algeria at a most vulnerable time for the United States in the region. The article discusses important role that Hassan Dey played in negotiating peace treaty between the USA and Algeria as well as release of American prisoners in Algeria that followed years of negotiations as well as personal involvement of the first president of the United States of America George Washington.

There is only very limited evidence for the life of the sixteenth century English renegade and eunuch slave, Hassan Agha, whose birth name was Samson Rowlie. Until now, he has been known from a single letter written in 1586, supplemented by a striking watercolour portrait from 1588. However, new research on early English diplomatic relations with the Ottomans has uncovered further evidence of Hassan Agha's later life and continued contacts with his fellow Englishmen. This previously unstudied evidence includes a report of Hassan Agha's premature death in sinister circumstances, presumed murdered. This paper will present these original research findings in the context of England's early diplomatic and commercial relations with the Ottoman Levant. Particular attention will be paid to the position of eunuch slaves within Ottoman government and society, as well as questions of personal identity and loyalty amongst renegade ministers and officials. This will address the proposed conference topics of 'consular, diplomatic and commercial interactions' and 'individual or family histories that reveal aspects of the Levantine world'.

1914 yılı sayımına göre nüfusu 850.000 olan İstanbul, tarihsel geçmişi, politik ve coğrafi odağı dolayısıyla pek çok devlet için sahip olunması gereken yüksek karatlı bir elmas, Çanakkale ise bu payitahtı ele geçirmek için satranç tahtası üzerindeki vezirdi. 18 Mart Deniz Zaferi'nin kahramanlarından Yzb. Hakkı Bey ve Yzb. Hafız Nazmi Bey; iki yıl arayla aynı şehrin farklı kıyılarında dünyaya geldiler. Ardarda Bahriye Mektebi'nden mühendis olarak mezun oldular, ard arda tayinle Çanakkale'ye geldiler. Yok olmak üzere olan bir ülkenin kötü günlerinde yolları birleşti. Yüzbaşı Hakkı Bey'in zayıf kalbi, görevini heyecanla yerine getirdikten altı ay sonra sustu. 18 Mart Zaferi'nden dört ay sonra Binbaşı olan Hafız Nazmi Bey, ona göre daha şanslıydı, emekli olduktan sonra uzun yıllar gemilerde çalışabildi. Savaş boyunca Birleşik Filo'da, İngiliz, Fransız, Avusturalya ve Ruslara ait 100 parçadan fazla tekne bulunuyordu. Zırhlı, muhrip, muharebe kruvazörü, uçak gemisi, torpido, denizaltı, kruvazör, balon gemisi, yat, monitor ve mayın temizleme gemileri farklı zamanlarda Boğaz önündeki Yunan Adaları'na demirledi. Gemiler grup grup gözetleme yaptı, tabyaları dövdü, mayınları temizledi Bu dönemde Çanakkale'de kullanılan mayınlar, savunmanın önemini bariz bir şekilde ortaya çıkaran araçlar oldu. Coğrafi koşulların gerektirdiği savunma kabiliyetleri (topoğrafi ve akıntı), mayınların topçuyla birlikte uyumu, saldıranların kötü harekat planları, mayınların baskınvari etkileri ve mayınlara karşı savunmada yetersiz kalmaları gibi etkenler dolayısıyla başarılı bir taktik kullanım olarak ortaya çıktı. Savaşa henüz resmen girilmemiş olsa da, Çanakkale Boğazı'nın tahkim planları yapılmak üzere Alman Askeri Islah Kurulu'ndan müfettişler Albay Weber ve Posselt ile Amiral Şak görevlendirilmişti. Heyetin 1914 yılında verdiği raporda daha fazla torpido bataryası kurulması önerilmişti. 1915 baharında 170 Alman Boğaz'ın savunmasında görev almıştı. Gerekli malzeme ve mayınların çoğu İstanbul'dan temin ediliyordu. Müstahkem Mevki Komutanlığı, karadaki birliklerle uyum içinde, yavaş yavaş ileri mesafelere doğru artırarak mayın döşemeye devam etti. Bunların bazıları Birleşik Filo tarafından patlatıldı. Bay Ramiz (serseri) mayınları da bu süreçte denenmiş ancak kimi motordan atıldıktan sonra patlamış, kimi sahilde alev almıştı. Yerinden oynayan mayınları da sürekli düzeltmek gerekiyordu. Bazılarının bağlantı halatları, üzerindeki şişelere dolanarak kırıyor, infilak ediyordu. Çanakkale Mayın Müfrezesi, Bahriye Nezareti'ne bağlı olup tüm mayınlar vapurlar ve diğer vasıtalar Nezaret tarafından tedarik edilmekteydi. 1914 Ekim'inde savaşa girildiğinde, ticaret gemilerinin geçişi için mayın döşenmeden bırakılan açığın artık kapatılması emredilmişti. 8 MART 1915 ÇANAKKALE Boğaz'a giren İngiliz ve Fransız zırhlıları geri dönüş sırasında en geniş yerlerden biri olan Erenköy Koyu'nda manevra yapıyordu. Boğazın en geniş aralığı yaklaşık 7 km, en dar aralığı 1.3 km idi. Nusret Mayın Gemisi az su çektiğinden, dar alanlarda manevra kabiliyeti yüksek olup mayınlı alanlar üzerinde rahatça dolaşabiliyordu. Çanakkale Boğazı'nda gemilerin geçişini engellemek üzere ağ atma ve mayın döşeme işlerine katılmıştı. 17 Aralık 1914 tarihinde Kepez-Havuzlar güneyi arasında yedinci hat olarak 50 mayın, 30 Aralık 1914 tarihinde 45 m arayla, dokuzuncu hat olarak 30 mayın, 27 Şubat'ta onuncu hat olarak 53 mayın dökmüştü. Muhtelif zamanlarda Boğaz'ın dar yerinde birbirine paralel 10 farklı mayın hattı döşenmişti. Birleşik Filo gemileri Boğaz'a giriş yolu açmak üzere girdiklerinde ilerideki mayın hatlarını görüp geri çekiliyorlardı. Manevra yaptıkları alan Erenköy Koyu'ydu. Müstahkem Mevkii Grup Komutanı Cevat Paşa, Yzb. Hakkı Bey ve Yzb. Hafız Nazmi Bey'i makamına çağırdı. Erenköy'e dökülecek mayınların kıyıya paralel, manevra hattına dik olarak yerleştirilmesi kararlaştırıldı ve bu görev Nusret'e verildi.

Sixteenth-century North Africa, the "Forgotten Frontier" between two rival empires, the Habsburgs and the Ottomans, came into the latter's orbit with the incorporation of the North African corsairs into the Ottoman empire. The employment of these corsairs and the incorporation of their lands created opportunities as well as problems. This article aims to highlight the reasons behind and the limits of the cooperation between North African corsairs and Istanbul when the importance of the former for the latter reached its zenith, in tandem with the Ottoman-Habsburg rivalry in the Mediterranean. It furthermore tries to demonstrate the details of the relationship between the imperial centre in Istanbul and the frontier provinces of North Africa with its centrifugal elites. Thus it reveals the diversity of Ottoman administrative practices as well as the pragmatism and flexibility of the Ottoman government. Finally, it delineates the role that the corsairs played in the shaping of the Mediterranean strategy of the Ottoman empire.

Following the 1877-78 Russo-Turkish War, a combination of financial insolvency, changing priorities in imperial defense and personal preferences led Sultan Abdülhamid II to execute a radical shift in Ottoman naval policy. The battle fleet was mothballed and the revolutionary new naval weapons system, the torpedo boat, was embraced as the new backbone of the imperial navy. This paper aims to analyze both the internal and the international context of the Hamidian naval policies, present an accurate technological panorama of the first Ottoman torpedo flotilla and summarize the operations of these vessels. Full plans of the three different classes of Ottoman torpedo vessels are provided for the first time in historiography, scale drawings of all vessels mentioned and numerous photographs, some published for the first time.

ÖZ
Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Tuna Donanması: Teşkilâtı ve Faaliyetleri (1683-1718)

Osmanlı Devleti, Tuna Nehri’ne ulaştıktan sonra nehrin lojistik ve askerî avantajlarından yararlanmak üzere filolar bulundurmuştur. Ancak bu filolar idarî ve malî bakımdan bir donanma teşkilâtına işaret etmemekteydi. II. Viyana Kuşatması’na dönüşen sefer sonrasında ise Tuna donanması, idarî ve malî bakımdan tam yetkili bir kapudan tarafından idare edilmek üzere teşkil edilmiştir. Bu tezde Tuna donanmasının teşkilât yapısı, kapudanları, muharip ve hizmetli personeli, malî kaynakları, gemileri, gemi inşa tezgâhları, gemi inşa faaliyetleri ve donanmanın barış ve savaş dönemindeki askerî ve lojistik faaliyetleri ele alınmıştır. Başkanlık Osmanlı Arşivi’nde bulunan defter serileri başta olmak üzere çeşitli arşiv belgeleri ve kronikler üzerinde yapılan çalışmayla, Osmanlı seferlerine Tuna donanmasının muharip katkısı, Tuna Nehri’nin askerî amaçlarla kullanılma keyfiyeti ve özellikle Kutsal İttifak’la yapılan savaşlarda Osmanlılara sağladığı lojistik avantajları ortaya konulmuştur.

ABSTRACT
The Danube Navy of the Ottoman Empire: Organization and Operations (1683-1718)

The Ottoman Empire had placed fleets after reaching the Danube River to exploit the logistic and military advantages/benefits of the river. However, these fleets did not indicate a naval organization in terms of administration and finance. A fully authorized kapudan administratively and financially operated the Danube Navy, which was initiated after the expedition that had shifted into the Battle of Vienna. This thesis aims to discuss the organizational structure of the Danube Navy, its kapudans, soldiers and service personnel, financial resources, ships, shipbuilding looms, and shipbuilding activities while also analysing the military and logistics activities of the navy during peace and war. The thesis aims to present the military/subsidy of the Danube Navy to the Ottoman expeditions, the military purpose of the Danube River, along with the logistical advantages it provided to the Ottomans, specifically during the wars with The Holy League. All these studies have been indicated by analysing various archival documents and chronicles, including with the Defter series in the Ottoman Archive.

The sixteenth century was a time when projects against Ottoman power were diminishing. This sixteenth century trend changed dramatically after the battle of Lepanto on 7 October 1571, when the Holy League coalition forces inflicted a significant defeat on the Ottoman fleet. This study investigates how Venice responded to the growing anti-Ottoman projects and movements in the Balkans in order to keep a long lasting peace with the Ottomans that characterized the period from the peace treaty between Venice and the Ottoman Empire in 1573 until the war of Crete in 1644. Venice's struggle for peace in this period, was of crucial importance in the relatively quiet situation in Rumelia during this period compared to the disquiet and social unrest that characterized Anatolia, especially during the Celali revolts.

ÖZET:  Dünya denizciliğinde yaşanan dönüm noktalarından biri aynı zamanda bir deniz tutkunu olan Sultan Abdülaziz’in padişahlık dönemine (1861-1876) isabet etmiştir. Özellikle teknolojik dönüşümün çok hızlı olduğu bu dönemde gemi inşasından seyir esaslarına, denizci eğitiminden kurumsal teşkilatlanmaya kadar çeşitli değişimler yaşanmıştır. Modern deniz tarihi bu nedenle teknoloji, finans ve operasyon yönetimi konularını kapsamak zorundadır. Bu çalışmada, Osmanlı bahriyesi için de başlamış olan dönüşüm donanmaya ait gemiler özelinde ve arşiv kayıtları çerçevesinde incelenmektedir. Kırım Harbi ile başlayan zırhlı gemilerin önemi ve bu zırhlı gemi fikrinin çok kısa bir zaman diliminde yaygınlaşması sonrası buhar ve zırhlının eş anlı faydası Batı donanmalarının omurgasını oluştururken, Osmanlı Devleti ileri seviyede deniz gücüne sahip diğer ülkeleri takip etmeye özen göstermiştir. Sinop baskını sonrası yok olmaya yüz tutmuş donanma Sultan Abdülaziz zamanında yeni bir inşa sürecine girmiştir. Teknolojik olarak yetersiz kalan Osmanlı bu yeni inşa sürecini daha çok İngiltere ve Fransa’dan gemi ve ateşli silahlar satın almak suretiyle yönetmeye çalışmıştır. Eğitim alanında gerçekleşen ilerici adımların yetersiz kalması ve deniz gücünün donanma dışı diğer alanlarında yaşanan eksiklik neticesinde, Osmanlı donanması dönemin en büyük donanmalardan biri olarak sayılsa dahi, bir yıkım ile karşı karşıya kalmıştır. 1867 yılında kaptanpaşalık teşkilatının son bulması ile oluşan Bahriye Nezareti kurumsal olarak modern yapılanmayı yakalama çabası içerisinde olan bir Osmanlı Devletini karşımıza çıkarmaktadır. Hız ve dayanıklılık unsurlarının beklentileri özetlediği buharlı gemilerde yaşanan en büyük problemin kaliteli kömür olduğu bu dönemde, Osmanlı Devleti de büyüyen donanması karşısında kaliteli kömüre ulaşmak durumundaydı. Diğer taraftan, 1870 yılında Rusya’nın Paris Barış Antlaşmasını feshettiğini bildirmesi ile Karadeniz tarafsızlığı yok olmuş, Sultan Abdülaziz bir Karadeniz sorunu ile de karşı karşıya kalmıştı. Siyasi havanın çok hızlı değişim gösterdiği bu dönemde Avrupa genelinde yaşanan dönüşüm devletleri deniz gücünü kuvvetlendirme çabası içerisine ittiği kadar Osmanlı Devleti de bu yönde kendini göstermiştir.

Anahtar sözcükler: Osmanlı, bahriye, deniz gücü, zırhlı.

Ottoman Navy During The Reign of Abdülaziz

ABSTRACT: One of the milestones of world seafaring coincides with the era of Sultan Abdülaziz (1861-1876) who was passionate about sea. Especially technological change was swift as thought in ship construction, navigation rules, seaman training, institutional organisation. Modern maritime history therefore has to include technology, finance and operation management issues. Ottoman navy transformation is reviewed in this study particularly specific to ships and archive documents. Armoured ships importance began with Crimean War and expanded within a very short time of period. When simultaneous advantage of steam and armour became main subject for western navies, Ottoman Empire followed carefully those states who were at advance level in sea power. Ottoman navy tended to fade away after Sinop invasion came into a new era with Sultan Abdülaziz. Technologically insufficient Ottoman Empire tried to manage new formation by buying ships and firearms from England and France. Ottoman Empire was faced with destruction due to the fact that insufficient progressive steps in naval training and deficiency within other areas of sea power even though the empire was listed as one of the big navies. The year 1867 brought new institutional organisation showing improvement in modernisation efforts of Ottoman navy. The most important problem for steamed ships was to find qualified coal in the era in which speed and strength were key expectations. Therefore, transformed Ottoman navy also had to reach qualified coal. Besides political conjuncture in the era, as in Black Sea neutrality process in 1870, evolved fast. Transformation of Europe in general forced states to strengthen their sea power as it did for Ottoman Empire.

Türk Askerî Tarihi Bibliyografyası kitabı Nisan’da araştırmacıların hizmetine açıldığında
2021 yılına kadar yapılan 11398 çalışmanın künyesinden oluşmaktaydı. Gözden kaçanlar ve yeni yayınlarla birlikte bu sayı 14618’e ulaştı. Bu künyelerin çoğu genellikle Türkçe çalışmalar olmakla birlikte az sayıda Türk tarihiyle doğrudan ilgili olan yabancı dildeki çalışmaların künyeleri de bulunmaktadır. Künyelerin dönemlere göre göre dağılımına bakıldığında Osmanlı Öncesi ile ilgili 1519; Yeniçağ ile ilgili 2789; Yakınçağ-Cumhuriyet ile ilgili 9661 künye bulunmaktadır. Bunların dışında Türk askerî tarihi ile ilgili 719 adet Genel Çalışma bulunmaktadır. Hiç şüphesiz eksiklikler olacaktır. Bu eksikliklerin tamamlanması ve yeni yayınların kitapta yer alabilmesi için haten.yayin@msu.edu.tr adresine, çalışmanın konusuna göre “Osmanlı Öncesi”, “Yeniçağ”, “Yakınçağ-Cumhuriyet” veya “Genel Çalışma” başlığı ile gönderebilirsiniz.

Between the Congress of Vienna (1815) and the Crimean War (1853-1856) the Levantine Mediterranean was the theatre of several European countries’ navies, interested not only in trading with the Porte, but also in the political changes happening in that area. In this context, a new and relevant object was represented by the presence of the U.S. war frigates that watched the evolution of the events, in a period when the Ottoman Empire, mostly after the defeat at Navarino (1827), became more and more conscious of the need of renewing the fleet. Through the military and civil U.S. surveys written on board of those war frigates, this paper aims at build a new image of the Ottoman navy, not as much considered as those of other countries even before the Sinope disaster (1853), when it was destroyed by the Russian squadron. The U.S. sources, with the description of moves, ships, mariners and uses, help us better understand the reasons why the Ottomans, so feared ashore, “at sea, they are a mere name: their admirals know nothing of maneuvering, or, indie, even of sailing ships; and the mismanagement and disorder that would prevail, would lay them open an easy prey to the ships of any other nation” (G. Jones, New Haven 1829, II, 149).

Bahriye Müzesi'nde üç ressam… Yüreklerinde vatan sevgisini derinden hisseden asker ressamlardan sadece üçü… Batılı anlamda Türk resim sanatının benimsenmesinde Sultan II. Mahmut önemli bir rol oynamış, yağlı boya portresini devlet dairelerine astırarak resim sanatı adına önemli bir adım atılmasını sağlamıştı. Sultan Abdülmecit ve Sultan Abdülaziz zamanlarında da resim sanatı gelişme göstermiş, sarayda Batılı ressamlar ağırlanmıştır. Kısa sürede gerçekleşen bu devinimin sebeplerinden biri askeri okullarda resim eğitiminin zorunlu tutulması olmuştur. Bu zorunluluk yüzünden resim eğitimine verilen ağırlıkla 19. yüzyıl başlarından itibaren alışıldık kalıpların aksine, perspektifi olan, saray konulu resimlerin dışında, yeni bir teknikle resim yapan " asker ressamlar " yetişmiştir. Mühendishane-i Hümayun'da topçu subaylarının yetişmesi için bile perspektif ve gölge dersleri verilir olmuş, kimi hocalar resim yapamayan bir subayın pek makbul sayılamayacağından dem vurmuştur. İlk Türk pentür ressamları çoğunlukla albüm fotoğraflarını resmederek işe başlamışlardı. Eğitime verilen ağırlıkla Osmanlı sanat çevresi gittikçe genişlemiş ve başarılı eserler üreten gençler toplumda sanatçı kimliğiyle yerini almıştır.

By the mid-fifteenth century, Ottoman-controlled territories had completely enveloped Constantinople. Ottoman expansion at the expense of the Byzantine
empire was in fact further aided by the weakness of the heir of Roman glory. Financially exhausted, internally corrupted, and politically separated from the
main European powers, the Byzantine empire was simply incapable of offering a coherent and effective defense against the growing Ottoman forces.The city,
the Second Rome, capital of a by-then inexistent empire, fell in 1453 after a siege. It is only then the Ottomans began a considerable and rapid shipbuilding
program, rising to challenge in the following century Venice in the Mediterranean sea and the Portuguese in the Indian ocean. By conquering Constantinople, however, the Ottomans gained more than some tacit recognition of their power. With the city under their control, the Ottomans inherited not only a strategically located position dominating the straits but also a centre of naval power.

The armament race which had begun in the late 19th century came into prominence in the maritime with the realization of the programs considering the construction of new ships. The construction of faster ships with long-range cannons had been stipulated in order to become superior on the sea and this race had been concluded with the construction of dreadnought class ships. When Goeben (Yavuz), which was the second dreadnought constructed in Germany, had been launched nobody could have estimated that the ship would bring the end of the age of empires in the world and that it would held a significant role in Turkish History. Being considered as the most superior ship of the period, Goeben (Yavuz) succeeded in all the battles during the war and served as the insurance of the Ottoman State at the Black Sea against the Russians.
Various studies have been made on the battle cruiser Goeben (Yavuz) up to the present and in most of the studies evaluated the process through which the dreadnought passed under the Ottoman flag and the activities performed by the cruiser until the end of the war. In this study the technical specifications of Yavuz (Goeben) which did not sink despite the mine wounds it had, the repairs made on the ship during the period it sailed under the Ottoman and Turkish flags, and the process of its discarding will be evaluated. Besides, the study will also focus on the efforts made to keep Yavuz (Goeben), which can be considered as the last dreadnought alive when it was sold to MKEK to be dismantled, as a museum.
Throughout the study national archival documents and documents from US National Archives has been used.
Purpose of the Study
The balance policy followed by Bismarck was replaced by the colonial policy after the German Emperor II. Wilhelm acceded to the throne in 1888. This situation destabilized mainly the way of sharing the African continent among England, France and Russia and Germany began its quest to get a share of the cake. This could only be realized by creating a powerful navy against England and France.
Industrial and technological developments starting from the second half of the 19th century reflected also in the shipbuilding sector and speed tonnage and weapon ranges of ships improved. The first ship built with deck and boards covered by steel armor in a protected way from mines and torpedoes, named as HMS Drednought joined British navy in 1906. The construction of Dreadnought has changed the course of the maritime history.
Introduction
Germany started to construct dreadnought class ships within the navy construction program prepared by the Navy Minister Admiral Tirpitz in order to make the navy more persuader as an indispensable element of Germany's changing foreign policy. Goeben, one of this class of ships being much more superior compared to British dreadnoughts regarding especially the armor protection joined German navy in 1912.
Sparks of War ignited by the murder of Archduke Ferdinand in 1914 surrounded Europe in a very short time, Goeben and Breslau, which bombed France's colonial Algerian ports entered the Dardanelles on 10 August 1914 after escaping from the British and French navy in the Mediterranean. Entry of two German ships from Dardanelles by approval of the Minister of the Navy Enver Pasha accelerated involvement process of the Ottoman Empire to the I. World War. Goeben and Breslau were named as Yavuz Sultan Selim and Midilli with Turkish flag taken on board and served under Admiral Souchon's command during the war. As a result of a planning under the leadership of the Minister of the Navy Enver Pasha, German ambassador Wangenheım and navy commander Admiral Souchon, Ottoman navy bombed Russian ports on 29 October 1914 and then Ottoman Empire was involved in the war on the same side as Germany.
Yavuz Sultan Selim became the main factor which deterred Russians from a military action in Black Sea similar to the landing action made by England and France combined navy to Gallipoli coasts. Repair activities of the battleship which maintained its float and combat capability in spite of being exposed to mine hits could be made limitedly due to technical deficiencies in Ottoman shipyards. Two mine crashes were closed and shaft bearings were replaced without docking the ship by workers and materials brought from Germany during the war despite limited possibilities.
The war ended in the Black Sea following the Russia's withdrawal from the war in the end of 1917 Bolshevik Revolution. Midilli sank and Yavuz Sultan Selim was hit by three mines during the İmroz Action, realized in Aegean under the command of Admiral Paschwitz, assigned as Ottoman Navy Commander to replace Admiral Souchon. Machinery and weapon systems of the battleship subdued by British after Mondros Armistice became un-operational and it served as Apprentice School until the proclamation of the Republic.
Docking and repair of Yavuz Sultan Selim, which passed to the Republic navy in a wounded condition was finished after removal of the Ministry of Marine on 5 January 1928 due to political wrangling, which was established on 30 December 1924. New dock construction and docking was done by German company Filander, machinery and boiler repair was done by French company St. Nazaire Penohed. The battleship of which boilers and fire control systems were renovated was carried up to a construction speed of 28 mph.
Minister of Marine İhsan Eryavuz and accompanying delegation being accused of corruption with respect to transactions in the tender process stood trial at Divan-ı Ali and were punished. This trial was the first Supreme Court trial and punishment of a minister in the Republican period.
Yavuz Sultan Selim, which joined Turkish navy after being completely repaired in 1930, was firstly renamed as Yavuz Selim and then as Yavuz in the Republican period. Yavuz, which actively served until 1950, did the driving force in the formation of the Turkish navy and the navy establishment programs were created as Yavuz oriented.
The ship kept in the spare status was taken out of service in 1957, then sold to Mechanical and Chemical Industry as scrap in 1969.
Although both Turkish and German press tried to mold public opinion during the sales and fragmentation process to make Yavuz a museum, based on its important role in the world history and since it was the last existing dreadnought, this could not be realized due to economical reasons. The decision of the politicians of that era therefore eliminated the opportunity to transfer the living history to future generations.
Churchill described Yavuz (Goeben) as a ship which carried so many deaths, poverties and disasters in 1914 to the people living in East and Middle East which was never seen in the compass of a ship before and Yavuz (Goeben) served for 62 years under Turkish and German flags and has not only left a reputation in the world history, but also large imprints. During its service, the glorious Yavuz battleship was attacked 17 times by seaforce, 60 times by airforce, wounded 6 times by 30,5 cm artillery, 5 times by mine and 2 times by bomb and continues to remain in Turkish Nation's memories as a legend worthy of its giant body and its power.
Conclusion
Ottoman Empire which had the second largest navy in the world with France in Sultan Abdulaziz era was unable to achieve the era since technological developments had not been followed up and could provide limited support during the war to Yavuz Sultan Selim, one of the most modern ships of its era. Imprisonment of the navy in the Golden Horn by Sultan Abdulhamid had also direct impact in loss of war capability of the navy.
If Sultan Osman and Reşadiye dreadnoughts captured by England were delivered back, these ships would also need a dock. This is an indication that Ottoman administrators and mariners did not act with sufficient foresight. Although relevant preparations had been made in Gölcük, they were not completed also due to economic reasons.
Despite all these problems, Yavuz managed to permanently maintain the marine superiority against Russians in the Black Sea during the war thanks to both its perfect design and tenacious struggle of Turkish and German workers.
The navy was established as Yavuz oriented in the Republic period and took its place among reputable navies around the world in accordance with Atatürk's directives. If attempts to make a museum ship were successful, we would have the opportunity to live and to better evaluate the history.

Sultan Reşad, tahta oturduğunda seleflerinden miras kalan sorunlarla
dolu malî, iktisadî alanlar dışında Memalik-i Şâhâne’nin bekâsını alenî
tehdit eden bir dizi güvenlik sorunuyla da karşı karşıya kalmıştı. Bilhassa
Osmanlı’nın denizlerdeki ezelî rakipleri Yunanistan ve Rusya’nın ilerleyişine set çekebilmek ve Düvel-i Muazzama’nın bitmek tükenmek bilmeyen müdahalelerini dizginlemek için muktedir bir donanmaya olan ihtiyaç, 19. yüzyıl boyunca olduğu gibi Sultan Reşad ve İttihadçıların da gündemini meşgul etmeyi sürdürecektir.

THE SEA BATTLE OF NAVARINO AND OTTOMAN NAVY-1827

The naval Battle of Navarino, in terms of its subsequent results, is evaluated as one of the worst disasters experienced by the Ottoman Fleet in 19th Century. The battle began with a sudden offensive of the combined British, French ands Russian naval force to combined Ottoman-Egyptian armada anchored at Navarino Bay on 20 October 1827. After approximately a three and half hours engagement almost all Ottoman warships at the Bay were destroyed by fire. Moreover, having lost a great number of skilled navy personnel, Ottoman Turks described this battle an unlawful ambush, a disaster, an unfortunate day, and beginning of a Crusade. The aim clearly given priority by the Allied Powers of this unexpected offensive, thereupon they has not lost even a single ship, was to remove the obstacles for the foundation of a free Greek State. The second important target of the Powers was that they had a consensus to break the constantly rising power in the Mediterranean of Muhammad Ali Pasha, the ruler of Egypt, spreading his penetration through the Aegean Sea and Peloponnese as a result of Greek Uprising. This article deals with the reasons and results of the Battle of Nevarino alongside with the process of war and the damage inflicted on the Ottoman Fleet aftermath and all the attempts made in order to replace the losses by exploiting the primary sources.

My article (in Polish language) about the Ottoman sailing navy and naval technology during the Russo-Turkish wars of Catherine II "The Great". The final synthesis of my two previous articles in English and French languages, it is my attempt to make a case about the real state of Ottoman naval architecture in 18th century against the traditional narratives of indifference and inferiority. I tried to demonstrate, backed with visual documentation from various archives, that the Ottoman Navy closely followed developments in the warship building all through the 18th century and its defeats at the hands of Russians were rather due to shortcomings in the administration, personnel and doctrine.