The document provides information on various topics in engineering geology including:
1. Definitions of engineering geology, geology, and their importance in civil engineering projects like understanding construction materials, groundwater, and foundations.
2. Branches of geology like physical geology, petrology, structural geology, and their focus on natural earth processes, rock origins and structures.
3. Key geological concepts like weathering, rock excavation methods, faults, folds, strike and dip, and seismic waves from earthquakes.
4. The importance of understanding local geology for planning major engineering works.
1) The document discusses the importance of geology in civil engineering projects. Geology provides information about site selection, construction materials, and foundation stability that is vital for planning, designing, and building structures.
2) Failures of civil engineering projects like dams can sometimes be attributed to geological factors that were not properly considered, such as weak foundations or faults. A thorough understanding of geology can help prevent these types of failures.
3) Key areas of geology discussed include petrology, structural geology, mineralogy, and their significance for civil engineering. Understanding the composition and properties of rocks, minerals, and geological structures aids in engineering design and construction.
This document discusses the physical properties of rocks. It defines a rock as an aggregate of mineral particles that can be sedimentary, metamorphic, or igneous. Physical properties describe the performance of rocks under different conditions and help classify rocks. These properties include specific gravity, density, porosity, permeability, and electrical/thermal conductivity. Mineralogical composition, structure, and texture also influence the physical properties of a rock. The document provides examples of common rock-forming minerals and explains how properties like density and specific gravity are measured and used to characterize rocks.
Engineering geology is a branch of applied geology that deals with the application of geological knowledge and principles to civil engineering projects. It provides essential information for safe, stable, and economical design and construction of structures like buildings, dams, roads, and tunnels. Engineering geological studies are conducted during planning, design, construction, and post-construction phases of projects. The studies help understand site conditions, availability of construction materials, and how to mitigate geological hazards. Knowledge of geology is crucial for heavy construction projects and excavation works to plan realistically and design sound foundations.
It covers seismic method, gravity method, electromagnetic method, magnetic method and radiometric method. all these methods help in mineral exploration
This document provides an overview of landslides and geohazards. It defines landslides and describes different types such as rotational, translational, and flows. Causes of landslides like earthquakes, heavy rainfall, slope geometry, and erosion are discussed. The document outlines approaches for landslide hazard mapping including qualitative, quantitative, and statistical methods. Finally, it presents methods for landslide remediation like increasing slope stability through drainage improvements, retaining walls, reinforcement, and vegetation.
Types of dams, geological considerations in site selection, Competency of Rocks to offer stable dam foundation, effect of geological structures on dam, selection of dam site, Reservoir, purpose of reservoir, influence of water table, geological structures, life of reservoir, geophysical studies
Joints are cracks or fractures in rocks that divide the rock mass into blocks. They form due to tensile and compressive stresses from processes like cooling/crystallization of igneous rocks, erosion, seismic activity, and tectonic plate movement. Joints can be systematic or non-systematic, and are classified by their orientation, geometry, and origin. Joints are important both geologically and economically, as they influence groundwater flow, quarrying, tunnel construction, and more.
Various field of civil engineering concerned with geology,
Summery of applications,
FAQ’s,
Suggested Readings,
Standard References for Indian Students,Geology in Civil Engineering ,Geo technical Investigation, Site Selection, Geology in Mega projects, Geology in Ground water, Geology in Hydrology, Geology in Foundation of Structures, Geology- References, Geology for Construction Engineering
This document discusses rocks that are used as construction materials. It begins by introducing the properties that make rocks suitable for building, including strength and resistance to weathering. It then describes the various types of rocks commonly used in construction in India such as granite, dolerite, basalt, sandstone, limestone, marble, laterite, and slate. Specific examples of structures built from these materials are provided. The document concludes that India has a diverse supply of building stones and the construction industry contributes significantly to the economy.
The document discusses the physical properties of rocks and soils that are important for civil engineering projects. It describes measuring properties like unit weight, density, porosity, strength, and permeability. It then discusses specific gravity determination and how porosity is measured. Various stress types on rocks, including compressive and tensile strength, are defined. Methods for determining rock properties like point load index and Schmidt hammer rebound number are presented. The document also covers rock mass classification systems and significance of faults and folds for engineering projects, as well as weathering and alteration of rocks.
Geology is the study of the Earth, including its composition, structure, physical properties, history and the processes that shape it. The document outlines several key branches of geology, including economic geology, mining geology, petroleum geology, engineering geology, environmental geology, geochemistry, geomorphology, geophysics, historical geology, hydrogeology, mineralogy, paleontology, petrology, structural geology, sedimentology, stratigraphy and volcanology. Each branch deals with different aspects of the Earth and geological processes. Engineering geology specifically applies geological knowledge to civil engineering projects regarding construction materials, site selection, and safe design and construction.
The document discusses the importance of site investigation for building construction projects. Site investigation provides crucial information about soil, rock, and groundwater conditions that help determine appropriate foundation design and construction methods. It also identifies potential geological hazards. Proper site investigation assists in site selection and recommendations for mitigation measures to ensure safe and effective construction. Factors like accessibility, geology, environment, and costs are considered in site selection. Equipment and methods used in site investigations are also outlined.
The document discusses various geological factors that must be considered when constructing tunnels, including: conducting subsurface exploration using pits, adits, drilling, and pilot tunnels; using core drilling and geophysical investigations to interpret geological features; addressing issues related to joint orientation, weathering, faults, rock bursts, and more. Pilot tunnels can help explore critical geological conditions ahead of main excavation and drain rock. The ideal tunnel cross-section depends on the type of rock and purpose of the tunnel.
Structural geology is the study of the architecture and geometry of the Earth's crust and the processes that have shaped it. It involves analyzing how rock bodies deform in response to tectonic stresses. Structural analysis generally involves descriptive, kinematic, and dynamic analysis. Descriptive analysis describes rock structures like folds and faults. Kinematic analysis evaluates strain and changes in shape and orientation of rocks. Dynamic analysis reconstructs the stresses that caused rock deformation and failure. Stresses in rocks can be tensile, compressive, or shear stresses. Stress is analyzed using concepts like the stress tensor, Mohr's circle diagrams, and the orientation of maximum shear stresses. The main sources of stress that drive deformation are the motions of tectonic
This document provides an overview of engineering geology and rock mechanics. It discusses fundamentals such as lithology, rock structures, weathering, and rock mass classification systems. It also presents a case study on the 1928 failure of the St. Francis Dam in California, which was caused by unsuitable geological conditions including weakness along the San Francisquitto fault that were not properly considered in the dam's design and construction. The case study demonstrates the importance of engineering geological considerations for civil works.
Joints are fractures in rock without displacement. They form due to tension, shear, or compressive stresses. Joints can be classified based on their orientation relative to bedding, their geometry, genesis, and dip. Systematic joints are parallel while nonsystematic joints have irregular distributions. Joints influence groundwater flow, construction, and are important in mining and resource exploration. They provide pathways for fluid migration and impact slope stability.
Geology is the study of the physical structure and substance of the Earth. It provides knowledge about construction materials like stones and clay. It also helps understand natural geological processes like erosion that impact civil engineering projects. Geology is important for determining suitable foundations, exploring ground conditions via drilling, and planning major projects like dams, roads and tunnels. The study of geology includes physical geology, petrology, structural geology, and the weathering of rocks. Physical geology examines how the Earth's surface and interior change over time. Petrology studies the origin, composition and structure of different rock types. Structural geology analyzes the three-dimensional distribution of rocks and their deformation history. Weathering breaks down rocks through mechanical and chemical processes.
1. Geology is the science that studies the physical structure and composition of the Earth, as well as the processes that act on it.
2. Geology provides knowledge about construction materials like stones and clay that are important for civil engineering projects. It also helps understand natural geological processes like erosion that impact projects.
3. Geology is important for understanding groundwater resources and interpreting drilling data for projects like dams and bridges to ensure stable foundations.
This document provides an overview of engineering geology and its relevance to civil engineering. It defines engineering geology as the application of geology to ensure safe, stable and economical design and construction of civil engineering projects. The document outlines how different branches of geology, such as physical geology, mineralogy, petrology, structural geology and hydrogeology inform various aspects of civil engineering including construction, water resource development, and town planning by providing information on site conditions, material properties, and subsurface exploration. Key geological factors that influence civil engineering activities like dams, bridges and tunnels are also summarized.
lecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptx
lecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptx
1. Engineering geology is the application of geology for safe and economic design of engineering projects. It helps identify geologic hazards and suitable construction materials.
2. Physical weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces through mechanical processes like frost cracking, exfoliation, and roots growing without chemical changes to the rock.
3. Chemical weathering alters the mineralogical and chemical composition of rocks through hydrolysis, oxidation, and carbonation reactions with water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. This breaks rocks down into soils.
The document summarizes a geological field study conducted in Malekhu, Nepal. Key points:
- The study aimed to familiarize students with geological structures, engineering significance, and different rock and soil types. Measurements of dip, strike, and attitudes of bedding planes were taken.
- Engineering geology is important for civil engineering projects to understand subsurface conditions and design earthworks and foundations. Site investigations assess natural hazards.
- The field study location was selected for its accessible rocks, river morphology, natural topography, and mass movements. Objectives included learning identification and mapping techniques.
- Field observations and measurements of planar features like bedding, foliation, and joints were made using a Brunt
These slides covers introduction to structural geology its relation with tectonics , deformation like fold and faults, scope of structural geology in hydrocarbons exploration, in minerals exploration, in environmental science rtc.
Engineering Geology is a 3 credit course that involves lectures, tutorials, and field practice. The scope of engineering geology is the application of geology to solve problems in civil engineering projects related to construction, water resource development, and town planning. A brief history of the formation of the Earth and crust is provided, including how the early Earth cooled and formed igneous rocks, water condensed to form oceans, and sedimentary rocks accumulated over time through weathering and deposition.
Geology is the study of the Earth, including its composition, structure, physical properties, history and the processes that shape it. It involves studying topics like the origin and age of the Earth, its internal structure, various surface features and how they evolve and change over time. Geology has many branches that study different aspects like physical geology, geomorphology, mineralogy, petrology, economic geology, geochemistry, geophysics, hydrogeology, mining geology, engineering geology and more. Civil engineers and geologists work closely together in areas like planning, designing and constructing major civil engineering projects to ensure their safety, stability and cost-effectiveness by understanding the geological conditions and properties of the construction site and materials.
Geology is the study of the Earth, including its composition, structure, physical properties, history and the processes that shape it. It involves studying topics like the origin and age of the Earth, its internal structure, various surface features and how they evolve and change over time. Geology has many branches that study different aspects like physical geology, geomorphology, mineralogy, petrology, economic geology, geochemistry, geophysics, hydrogeology, mining geology, engineering geology and more. Civil engineers and geologists work closely together in areas like planning, designing and constructing major civil engineering projects to ensure their safety, stability and cost-effectiveness by understanding the geological conditions and properties of the construction site and materials.
This document provides an introduction to the field of geoscience/geology. It discusses key topics like the formation of rocks through igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic processes. It also covers plate tectonics theory and how the motion of tectonic plates generates earthquakes. The objectives of the course are to understand rock and mineral formation, Earth's structure and composition, sea floor spreading via plate tectonics, landforms, and natural hazards like earthquakes.
This document discusses the role of geology in civil engineering. It begins with defining geology and its various branches including geochemistry, geologist, geological survey, and geological maps. It then discusses the different branches of geology such as physical geology, crystallography, mineralogy, petrology, structural geology, and stratigraphy. The document emphasizes that civil engineering geology involves applying geological knowledge to ensure safety, efficacy, and cost-effectiveness of engineering projects. Finally, it outlines the key roles of geology for civil engineering projects, which include providing construction materials, assisting with soil conservation and river/coastal works, aiding tunneling and road works, informing dam, bridge and building designs, assessing groundwater, creating geological
1.1 introduction of geology,Branches and Scope of Geology
This document discusses the branches and scope of geology. It outlines 15 branches of geology including physical geology, crystallography, mineralogy, petrology, structural geology, stratigraphy, paleontology, historical geology, economic geology, mining geology, civil engineering geology, hydrology, Indian geology, resources engineering, and photo geology. It then discusses the importance and scope of geology for civil engineering, including providing construction materials knowledge, helping with erosion and deposition projects, tunneling and foundations, and reducing engineering costs.
Structural geology deals with the deformation and stress of rocks and the resulting structural features. It is important for understanding crustal deformation, tectonic processes, and the forces that cause rock deformation. Structural geology has applications in exploration for natural resources by mapping structures like faults and folds that can trap oil, gas, and minerals. It also aids in design of underground mines and tunnels by providing insight into rock deformation properties and structural features. The field draws from geology, physics, mathematics and engineering to study 3D geometry of structures and deformation mechanisms.
Geology is the study of the Earth, including its composition, structure, physical properties, history and processes. It includes disciplines like mineralogy, petrology, geomorphology, paleontology, stratigraphy, geochemistry, geophysics and oceanography. Geology has many applications and is important for understanding Earth's processes, evaluating natural resources, managing the environment, assessing geologic hazards, and other areas. The key branches of geology are physical geology, historical geology, mineralogy, petrology, economic geology, engineering geology, paleontology, and environmental geology. Geology plays an important role in mining, engineering, scientific development and other fields through applications like resource evaluation, site selection, and hazard assessment.
Earth science and geology is the study of the Earth, including its composition, structure, physical properties, and history. Some key areas of focus include geology, the study of the age and structure of the Earth; geomorphology, the study of surface landforms and their evolution; and historical geology, the use of rocks and fossils to understand the past history of the Earth. The document also outlines various subdisciplines within geology like mineralogy, petrology, economic geology, and allied sciences like geochemistry, geophysics, and oceanography that involve applying other fields to geological problems and phenomena.
This document provides an overview of geology and its importance in civil engineering. It discusses key topics in geology including mineralogy, petrology, structural geology, physical geology, and geomorphology. Geology is important for civil engineering projects as it provides information on construction materials, foundation stability, and terrain. A basic understanding of earth materials like minerals, rocks, and soils is essential for tasks like tunneling, hydroelectric projects, and evaluating slope stability.
Prestressed concrete is a structural material that allows for predetermined, engineering stresses to be placed in members to counteract the stresses that occur when they are subject to loading.
This document discusses different types of foundations. There are two main types: shallow foundations and deep foundations. Shallow foundations are provided immediately underneath the structure near ground level to distribute loads over a large base area. Deep foundations are constructed well below ground level using methods like piles, wells, or caissons to transfer loads through weaker surface soils to stronger layers below. Pile foundations use long concrete cylinders pushed into the ground to support structures. Well foundations are typically used below water levels for bridges.
1. This document describes various tests conducted on cement and concrete to determine their properties and quality, including fineness, consistency, setting time, soundness, compressive strength, and workability.
2. Tests are also described for determining water demand and the effects of admixtures on properties like setting time and strength.
3. Common admixtures include accelerators, retarders, air-entrainers, and water-reducers, which can improve concrete workability, permeability, cracking resistance and durability.
Introduction and classification of rocks for building and construction materials... types of rocks and their classifications, and types of stone quarrying.
Cyclones are large-scale rotating air masses that form around low-pressure centers. They are characterized by inward spiraling winds and can cause heavy rainfall, strong winds, landfalls, and tornadoes. There are several types of cyclones including tropical cyclones that form over oceans in summer, hurricanes and typhoons being tropical cyclones, and polar cyclones that occur in polar regions in winter. Tropical cyclones are categorized from 1 to 5 based on their intensity and wind speeds.
An earthquake is caused by rapid shaking of the ground due to movement of tectonic plates or volcanic activity underground. Earthquakes are measured using seismometers which record seismic waves on instruments called seismographs. The location and magnitude of earthquakes are determined from these recordings. The Richter scale is used to describe earthquake magnitude, with greater magnitudes indicating stronger shaking. Major effects of earthquakes include damage to buildings and structures, landslides, tsunamis, and changes to the land surface like cracks and fissures. The most active seismic belts are around the Pacific Ocean, along the Alps and Himalayas, and along mid-ocean ridges.
Principles of Earthquake resistant design of Structures
This document discusses principles of earthquake-resistant building design and structural vibration control technologies. It explains that earthquake-resistant structures are designed to withstand expected earthquakes while minimizing loss of life and damage. This is achieved through methods ranging from ensuring adequate structural strength and ductility to using base isolation and vibration control systems. Base isolation allows a building to survive seismic impacts by installing flexible isolators between the structure and its foundation. Passive systems require no external power while active systems counterbalance earthquake forces using computer-controlled dampers. Hybrid systems combine aspects of passive and active control for reduced costs.
Folds are bends in rock layers caused by compressive forces. There are two main types of folds: anticlines, where the rock layers bend upwards into an arch, and synclines, where the layers bend downwards into a trough. Folds can be symmetrical, with equal halves on either side of the axial plane, or asymmetrical, with unequal halves. They can also be open or closed depending on the degree of bending, and occur as similar or parallel folds based on thickness and orientation of the rock layers.
This document discusses construction of buildings in seismic areas and provides guidelines for earthquake-resistant construction. It defines seismic belts as areas where earthquakes occur frequently and shield areas where they occur rarely or mildly. It recommends that buildings be founded on hard bedrock and avoid irregular shapes, loose soils, or cuttings. Reinforced concrete should be used with raft foundations and all parts of the building well-tied together to act as a single unit during vibrations. The document also discusses the Richter scale for measuring earthquake magnitudes and the increased damage radii from magnitude 5 to 8 earthquakes.
This document provides an analysis and design of a G+3 residential building. It includes details of the building such as dimensions, material properties, and load calculations. An equivalent static analysis is performed to calculate the seismic lateral loads at each floor level. The results of the structural analysis including bending moment and shear force diagrams are presented. Slab, beam, column and footing designs are to be covered in the thesis work according to the scope.
This document provides an overview of petrology, the scientific study of rocks. It defines different types of rocks, including igneous rocks formed by cooling magma, sedimentary rocks formed from compacted sediments, and metamorphic rocks formed by changes to existing rocks through heat, pressure, and chemical processes. It describes key concepts such as crystallization, dykes and sills which are rock intrusions, and the textures and structures of different rock types that provide clues to their formation histories. The document emphasizes that rocks have been essential to human civilization and the development of tools and materials throughout history.
Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solid substances with a defined chemical composition and crystal structure. There are over 4,900 known mineral species, with silicate minerals making up over 90% of the Earth's crust. Minerals form through crystallization as ions come together and atoms arrange themselves in an ordered pattern. They can crystallize from magma or other melts as they cool, or form through precipitation from fluids. The scientific study of minerals is called mineralogy, which examines their chemistry, crystal structure, physical properties, origins, classification, and distribution. Key physical properties used to identify minerals include color, streak, luster, hardness, cleavage, and fracture.
This document defines groundwater as water present beneath the Earth's surface, within soil pores and fractures in rock formations. An aquifer is a unit of rock or sediment that yields usable water. The water table marks the depth where pores and fractures become fully saturated. Groundwater is extracted via wells for agriculture, municipal, and industrial uses. Its study is called hydrogeology. Springs form when aquifers fill to the point of overflowing onto land. Pumping a well creates a cone of depression in the water table or pressure levels around the well. The size of this cone depends on factors like the pumping rate, aquifer properties, storage, and thickness.
Flat slabs are reinforced concrete slabs that are supported directly by columns without beams. They provide minimum depth, fast construction, and flexible column placement. There are four main types: slabs without drops and with column heads, slabs with drops and without column heads, slabs with both drops and column heads, and typical flat slabs. Column heads increase shear strength while drops increase shear strength and negative moment capacity. Flat slab systems can be either one-way or two-way depending on span ratios and load distribution. Advantages include simple formwork, no beams, and minimum depth, while disadvantages include potential interference from drops.
The document discusses water distribution systems. A distribution system receives treated water from pumping stations and delivers it through a network of pipes, valves, meters, pumps, reservoirs and hydrants. There are different types of layouts including dead-end, gridiron and circular systems. Distribution can occur via gravity, pumping or a dual system. Gravity relies on elevation while pumping requires energy. A dual system combines both for reliability and economy. The goal is to convey water at sufficient pressure and quantity to consumers while maintaining quality and providing emergency capacity.
This document discusses the geology considerations for dams and reservoirs. It describes the types of dams based on purpose, including storage, detention, diversion, coffer, and debris dams. It also discusses dam components and selection of suitable dam sites based on topographic, technical, construction, and economic factors. Geological investigations of the dam site include assessing the rock types, properties, structures, and water table. The document also summarizes types of reservoirs and geophysical studies used in geological assessments, including gravity, magnetic, seismic, radiometric, geothermal, and grouting methods.
This document discusses structural geology and stratigraphy. It defines stratigraphy as the study of rock layers and layering, which is used to study sedimentary and volcanic rocks. Stratigraphy has two subfields: lithostratigraphy which studies physical rock layers, and biostratigraphy which correlates rock layers using fossil assemblages. The document also discusses how William Smith was the "Father of English geology" for creating the first geologic map of England in the 1790s and recognizing the importance of strata and fossil markers. It provides details on lithostratigraphy focusing on rock types and layers, and biostratigraphy which correlates rock ages using contained fossils.
This document discusses water quality testing, which includes physical, chemical, and biological tests. Physical tests measure attributes like temperature, color, and turbidity. Chemical tests analyze total solids, hardness, chlorides, iron, manganese, and pH levels. Biological tests count total bacteria and test for E. coli to determine water safety. Proper water quality testing is important for treating water according to its contents and ensuring it is safe for public use.
The document discusses the key principles and processes involved in water treatment plants. It explains that the purpose is to remove particulates and pathogens that may pose health risks. It then describes several important processes used - including physical processes like sedimentation and filtration to remove microbes, chemical processes like using hydrated lime, and sludge treatment. It also discusses factors that impact settling like particle size/shape, and defines surface loading calculations to determine sedimentation tank effectiveness. Aeration is also introduced as a process to increase oxygen content in water.
This document discusses key considerations for designing a water distribution system including:
1) The type of water flow (continuous or intermittent) and method of distribution (gravity or pumping).
2) Estimating future demand based on population growth and industrial/firefighting needs.
3) Factors that influence pipe sizing such as hydraulic gradient, flow velocity, and design life.
4) Common pipe joint types like butt-welded, socket-welded, threaded, grooved, flanged, and compression joints and their relative costs, strengths, and installation complexity.
Unblocking The Main Thread - Solving ANRs and Frozen Frames
In the realm of Android development, the main thread is our stage, but too often, it becomes a battleground where performance issues arise, leading to ANRS, frozen frames, and sluggish Uls. As we strive for excellence in user experience, understanding and optimizing the main thread becomes essential to prevent these common perforrmance bottlenecks. We have strategies and best practices for keeping the main thread uncluttered. We'll examine the root causes of performance issues and techniques for monitoring and improving main thread health as wel as app performance. In this talk, participants will walk away with practical knowledge on enhancing app performance by mastering the main thread. We'll share proven approaches to eliminate real-life ANRS and frozen frames to build apps that deliver butter smooth experience.
In this slide, we'll explore how to leverage internal notes within Odoo 17 POS to enhance communication and streamline operations. Internal notes provide a platform for staff to exchange crucial information regarding orders, customers, or specific tasks, all while remaining invisible to the customer. This fosters improved collaboration and ensures everyone on the team is on the same page.
20CDE09- INFORMATION DESIGN
UNIT I INCEPTION OF INFORMATION DESIGN
Introduction and Definition
History of Information Design
Need of Information Design
Types of Information Design
Identifying audience
Defining the audience and their needs
Inclusivity and Visual impairment
Case study.
Software Engineering and Project Management - Introduction to Project Management
Introduction to Project Management: Introduction, Project and Importance of Project Management, Contract Management, Activities Covered by Software Project Management, Plans, Methods and Methodologies, some ways of categorizing Software Projects, Stakeholders, Setting Objectives, Business Case, Project Success and Failure, Management and Management Control, Project Management life cycle, Traditional versus Modern Project Management Practices.
Understanding Cybersecurity Breaches: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
Cybersecurity breaches are a growing threat in today’s interconnected digital landscape, affecting individuals, businesses, and governments alike. These breaches compromise sensitive information and erode trust in online services and systems. Understanding the causes, consequences, and prevention strategies of cybersecurity breaches is crucial to protect against these pervasive risks.
Cybersecurity breaches refer to unauthorized access, manipulation, or destruction of digital information or systems. They can occur through various means such as malware, phishing attacks, insider threats, and vulnerabilities in software or hardware. Once a breach happens, cybercriminals can exploit the compromised data for financial gain, espionage, or sabotage. Causes of breaches include software and hardware vulnerabilities, phishing attacks, insider threats, weak passwords, and a lack of security awareness.
The consequences of cybersecurity breaches are severe. Financial loss is a significant impact, as organizations face theft of funds, legal fees, and repair costs. Breaches also damage reputations, leading to a loss of trust among customers, partners, and stakeholders. Regulatory penalties are another consequence, with hefty fines imposed for non-compliance with data protection regulations. Intellectual property theft undermines innovation and competitiveness, while disruptions of critical services like healthcare and utilities impact public safety and well-being.
A brief introduction to quadcopter (drone) working. It provides an overview of flight stability, dynamics, general control system block diagram, and the electronic hardware.
Engineering geology is the application of the science of geology to the technology of ground engineering. The subject requires a comprehensive knowledge of geology, as well as an understanding of engineering properties and behaviour of the geological materials. The practice involves site investigation and site characterization specific to the needs of the engineering project. The geotechnical engineer plays a key role in most civil engineering projects as most structures are built on or in the ground. Geotechnical engineers assess the properties and behaviour of soil and rock formations.
This document discusses the importance of engineering geology in dam construction. There are three main types of dams - arc or buttress dams, gravity dams, and embankment dams - which experience different forces. Proper geological investigations are required to ensure the stability and safety of the dam foundation, the water-tightness of the reservoir, and slope stability. Preliminary geological investigations include topographical studies, reservoir location analysis, petrology studies, structural geology studies, and examining foundation conditions. Detailed investigations involve making a detailed geological map, studying rock types, structures, seismic data, and interpreting core drill samples to understand the engineering geological properties of the area.
The document discusses considerations for selecting dam and reservoir sites from a geological perspective. It defines different dam types including gravity, buttress, arch, and earth dams. Key factors for dam site selection include the underlying rock and soil composition and structure, with impermeable and stable foundations being important. Dams should avoid faults, fractures, and areas prone to erosion or earthquakes. The reservoir site selection process also aims to minimize land usage and sediment intake while ensuring adequate storage capacity.
1) The document discusses the importance of geology in civil engineering projects. Geology provides information about site selection, construction materials, and foundation stability that is vital for planning, designing, and building structures.
2) Failures of civil engineering projects like dams can sometimes be attributed to geological factors that were not properly considered, such as weak foundations or faults. A thorough understanding of geology can help prevent these types of failures.
3) Key areas of geology discussed include petrology, structural geology, mineralogy, and their significance for civil engineering. Understanding the composition and properties of rocks, minerals, and geological structures aids in engineering design and construction.
This document discusses the physical properties of rocks. It defines a rock as an aggregate of mineral particles that can be sedimentary, metamorphic, or igneous. Physical properties describe the performance of rocks under different conditions and help classify rocks. These properties include specific gravity, density, porosity, permeability, and electrical/thermal conductivity. Mineralogical composition, structure, and texture also influence the physical properties of a rock. The document provides examples of common rock-forming minerals and explains how properties like density and specific gravity are measured and used to characterize rocks.
Engineering geology is a branch of applied geology that deals with the application of geological knowledge and principles to civil engineering projects. It provides essential information for safe, stable, and economical design and construction of structures like buildings, dams, roads, and tunnels. Engineering geological studies are conducted during planning, design, construction, and post-construction phases of projects. The studies help understand site conditions, availability of construction materials, and how to mitigate geological hazards. Knowledge of geology is crucial for heavy construction projects and excavation works to plan realistically and design sound foundations.
It covers seismic method, gravity method, electromagnetic method, magnetic method and radiometric method. all these methods help in mineral exploration
This document provides an overview of landslides and geohazards. It defines landslides and describes different types such as rotational, translational, and flows. Causes of landslides like earthquakes, heavy rainfall, slope geometry, and erosion are discussed. The document outlines approaches for landslide hazard mapping including qualitative, quantitative, and statistical methods. Finally, it presents methods for landslide remediation like increasing slope stability through drainage improvements, retaining walls, reinforcement, and vegetation.
Types of dams, geological considerations in site selection, Competency of Rocks to offer stable dam foundation, effect of geological structures on dam, selection of dam site, Reservoir, purpose of reservoir, influence of water table, geological structures, life of reservoir, geophysical studies
Joints are cracks or fractures in rocks that divide the rock mass into blocks. They form due to tensile and compressive stresses from processes like cooling/crystallization of igneous rocks, erosion, seismic activity, and tectonic plate movement. Joints can be systematic or non-systematic, and are classified by their orientation, geometry, and origin. Joints are important both geologically and economically, as they influence groundwater flow, quarrying, tunnel construction, and more.
Various field of civil engineering concerned with geology,
Summery of applications,
FAQ’s,
Suggested Readings,
Standard References for Indian Students,Geology in Civil Engineering ,Geo technical Investigation, Site Selection, Geology in Mega projects, Geology in Ground water, Geology in Hydrology, Geology in Foundation of Structures, Geology- References, Geology for Construction Engineering
This document discusses rocks that are used as construction materials. It begins by introducing the properties that make rocks suitable for building, including strength and resistance to weathering. It then describes the various types of rocks commonly used in construction in India such as granite, dolerite, basalt, sandstone, limestone, marble, laterite, and slate. Specific examples of structures built from these materials are provided. The document concludes that India has a diverse supply of building stones and the construction industry contributes significantly to the economy.
The document discusses the physical properties of rocks and soils that are important for civil engineering projects. It describes measuring properties like unit weight, density, porosity, strength, and permeability. It then discusses specific gravity determination and how porosity is measured. Various stress types on rocks, including compressive and tensile strength, are defined. Methods for determining rock properties like point load index and Schmidt hammer rebound number are presented. The document also covers rock mass classification systems and significance of faults and folds for engineering projects, as well as weathering and alteration of rocks.
Geology is the study of the Earth, including its composition, structure, physical properties, history and the processes that shape it. The document outlines several key branches of geology, including economic geology, mining geology, petroleum geology, engineering geology, environmental geology, geochemistry, geomorphology, geophysics, historical geology, hydrogeology, mineralogy, paleontology, petrology, structural geology, sedimentology, stratigraphy and volcanology. Each branch deals with different aspects of the Earth and geological processes. Engineering geology specifically applies geological knowledge to civil engineering projects regarding construction materials, site selection, and safe design and construction.
The document discusses the importance of site investigation for building construction projects. Site investigation provides crucial information about soil, rock, and groundwater conditions that help determine appropriate foundation design and construction methods. It also identifies potential geological hazards. Proper site investigation assists in site selection and recommendations for mitigation measures to ensure safe and effective construction. Factors like accessibility, geology, environment, and costs are considered in site selection. Equipment and methods used in site investigations are also outlined.
The document discusses various geological factors that must be considered when constructing tunnels, including: conducting subsurface exploration using pits, adits, drilling, and pilot tunnels; using core drilling and geophysical investigations to interpret geological features; addressing issues related to joint orientation, weathering, faults, rock bursts, and more. Pilot tunnels can help explore critical geological conditions ahead of main excavation and drain rock. The ideal tunnel cross-section depends on the type of rock and purpose of the tunnel.
Structural geology is the study of the architecture and geometry of the Earth's crust and the processes that have shaped it. It involves analyzing how rock bodies deform in response to tectonic stresses. Structural analysis generally involves descriptive, kinematic, and dynamic analysis. Descriptive analysis describes rock structures like folds and faults. Kinematic analysis evaluates strain and changes in shape and orientation of rocks. Dynamic analysis reconstructs the stresses that caused rock deformation and failure. Stresses in rocks can be tensile, compressive, or shear stresses. Stress is analyzed using concepts like the stress tensor, Mohr's circle diagrams, and the orientation of maximum shear stresses. The main sources of stress that drive deformation are the motions of tectonic
This document provides an overview of engineering geology and rock mechanics. It discusses fundamentals such as lithology, rock structures, weathering, and rock mass classification systems. It also presents a case study on the 1928 failure of the St. Francis Dam in California, which was caused by unsuitable geological conditions including weakness along the San Francisquitto fault that were not properly considered in the dam's design and construction. The case study demonstrates the importance of engineering geological considerations for civil works.
joints and its classification and its recognitionShivam Jain
Joints are fractures in rock without displacement. They form due to tension, shear, or compressive stresses. Joints can be classified based on their orientation relative to bedding, their geometry, genesis, and dip. Systematic joints are parallel while nonsystematic joints have irregular distributions. Joints influence groundwater flow, construction, and are important in mining and resource exploration. They provide pathways for fluid migration and impact slope stability.
Geology is the study of the physical structure and substance of the Earth. It provides knowledge about construction materials like stones and clay. It also helps understand natural geological processes like erosion that impact civil engineering projects. Geology is important for determining suitable foundations, exploring ground conditions via drilling, and planning major projects like dams, roads and tunnels. The study of geology includes physical geology, petrology, structural geology, and the weathering of rocks. Physical geology examines how the Earth's surface and interior change over time. Petrology studies the origin, composition and structure of different rock types. Structural geology analyzes the three-dimensional distribution of rocks and their deformation history. Weathering breaks down rocks through mechanical and chemical processes.
1. Geology is the science that studies the physical structure and composition of the Earth, as well as the processes that act on it.
2. Geology provides knowledge about construction materials like stones and clay that are important for civil engineering projects. It also helps understand natural geological processes like erosion that impact projects.
3. Geology is important for understanding groundwater resources and interpreting drilling data for projects like dams and bridges to ensure stable foundations.
This document provides an overview of engineering geology and its relevance to civil engineering. It defines engineering geology as the application of geology to ensure safe, stable and economical design and construction of civil engineering projects. The document outlines how different branches of geology, such as physical geology, mineralogy, petrology, structural geology and hydrogeology inform various aspects of civil engineering including construction, water resource development, and town planning by providing information on site conditions, material properties, and subsurface exploration. Key geological factors that influence civil engineering activities like dams, bridges and tunnels are also summarized.
lecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxfasikakar
lecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptxlecture 01 Intodution to Engg Geology and Earth.pptx
1. Engineering geology is the application of geology for safe and economic design of engineering projects. It helps identify geologic hazards and suitable construction materials.
2. Physical weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces through mechanical processes like frost cracking, exfoliation, and roots growing without chemical changes to the rock.
3. Chemical weathering alters the mineralogical and chemical composition of rocks through hydrolysis, oxidation, and carbonation reactions with water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. This breaks rocks down into soils.
The document summarizes a geological field study conducted in Malekhu, Nepal. Key points:
- The study aimed to familiarize students with geological structures, engineering significance, and different rock and soil types. Measurements of dip, strike, and attitudes of bedding planes were taken.
- Engineering geology is important for civil engineering projects to understand subsurface conditions and design earthworks and foundations. Site investigations assess natural hazards.
- The field study location was selected for its accessible rocks, river morphology, natural topography, and mass movements. Objectives included learning identification and mapping techniques.
- Field observations and measurements of planar features like bedding, foliation, and joints were made using a Brunt
These slides covers introduction to structural geology its relation with tectonics , deformation like fold and faults, scope of structural geology in hydrocarbons exploration, in minerals exploration, in environmental science rtc.
Engineering Geology is a 3 credit course that involves lectures, tutorials, and field practice. The scope of engineering geology is the application of geology to solve problems in civil engineering projects related to construction, water resource development, and town planning. A brief history of the formation of the Earth and crust is provided, including how the early Earth cooled and formed igneous rocks, water condensed to form oceans, and sedimentary rocks accumulated over time through weathering and deposition.
Geology is the study of the Earth, including its composition, structure, physical properties, history and the processes that shape it. It involves studying topics like the origin and age of the Earth, its internal structure, various surface features and how they evolve and change over time. Geology has many branches that study different aspects like physical geology, geomorphology, mineralogy, petrology, economic geology, geochemistry, geophysics, hydrogeology, mining geology, engineering geology and more. Civil engineers and geologists work closely together in areas like planning, designing and constructing major civil engineering projects to ensure their safety, stability and cost-effectiveness by understanding the geological conditions and properties of the construction site and materials.
Geology is the study of the Earth, including its composition, structure, physical properties, history and the processes that shape it. It involves studying topics like the origin and age of the Earth, its internal structure, various surface features and how they evolve and change over time. Geology has many branches that study different aspects like physical geology, geomorphology, mineralogy, petrology, economic geology, geochemistry, geophysics, hydrogeology, mining geology, engineering geology and more. Civil engineers and geologists work closely together in areas like planning, designing and constructing major civil engineering projects to ensure their safety, stability and cost-effectiveness by understanding the geological conditions and properties of the construction site and materials.
This document provides an introduction to the field of geoscience/geology. It discusses key topics like the formation of rocks through igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic processes. It also covers plate tectonics theory and how the motion of tectonic plates generates earthquakes. The objectives of the course are to understand rock and mineral formation, Earth's structure and composition, sea floor spreading via plate tectonics, landforms, and natural hazards like earthquakes.
This document discusses the role of geology in civil engineering. It begins with defining geology and its various branches including geochemistry, geologist, geological survey, and geological maps. It then discusses the different branches of geology such as physical geology, crystallography, mineralogy, petrology, structural geology, and stratigraphy. The document emphasizes that civil engineering geology involves applying geological knowledge to ensure safety, efficacy, and cost-effectiveness of engineering projects. Finally, it outlines the key roles of geology for civil engineering projects, which include providing construction materials, assisting with soil conservation and river/coastal works, aiding tunneling and road works, informing dam, bridge and building designs, assessing groundwater, creating geological
1.1 introduction of geology,Branches and Scope of GeologyRam Kumawat
This document discusses the branches and scope of geology. It outlines 15 branches of geology including physical geology, crystallography, mineralogy, petrology, structural geology, stratigraphy, paleontology, historical geology, economic geology, mining geology, civil engineering geology, hydrology, Indian geology, resources engineering, and photo geology. It then discusses the importance and scope of geology for civil engineering, including providing construction materials knowledge, helping with erosion and deposition projects, tunneling and foundations, and reducing engineering costs.
Structural geology deals with the deformation and stress of rocks and the resulting structural features. It is important for understanding crustal deformation, tectonic processes, and the forces that cause rock deformation. Structural geology has applications in exploration for natural resources by mapping structures like faults and folds that can trap oil, gas, and minerals. It also aids in design of underground mines and tunnels by providing insight into rock deformation properties and structural features. The field draws from geology, physics, mathematics and engineering to study 3D geometry of structures and deformation mechanisms.
Geology is the study of the Earth, including its composition, structure, physical properties, history and processes. It includes disciplines like mineralogy, petrology, geomorphology, paleontology, stratigraphy, geochemistry, geophysics and oceanography. Geology has many applications and is important for understanding Earth's processes, evaluating natural resources, managing the environment, assessing geologic hazards, and other areas. The key branches of geology are physical geology, historical geology, mineralogy, petrology, economic geology, engineering geology, paleontology, and environmental geology. Geology plays an important role in mining, engineering, scientific development and other fields through applications like resource evaluation, site selection, and hazard assessment.
Earth science and geology is the study of the Earth, including its composition, structure, physical properties, and history. Some key areas of focus include geology, the study of the age and structure of the Earth; geomorphology, the study of surface landforms and their evolution; and historical geology, the use of rocks and fossils to understand the past history of the Earth. The document also outlines various subdisciplines within geology like mineralogy, petrology, economic geology, and allied sciences like geochemistry, geophysics, and oceanography that involve applying other fields to geological problems and phenomena.
This document provides an overview of geology and its importance in civil engineering. It discusses key topics in geology including mineralogy, petrology, structural geology, physical geology, and geomorphology. Geology is important for civil engineering projects as it provides information on construction materials, foundation stability, and terrain. A basic understanding of earth materials like minerals, rocks, and soils is essential for tasks like tunneling, hydroelectric projects, and evaluating slope stability.
Prestressed concrete is a structural material that allows for predetermined, engineering stresses to be placed in members to counteract the stresses that occur when they are subject to loading.
Foundation and its types and detailed explanationTarun kumar
This document discusses different types of foundations. There are two main types: shallow foundations and deep foundations. Shallow foundations are provided immediately underneath the structure near ground level to distribute loads over a large base area. Deep foundations are constructed well below ground level using methods like piles, wells, or caissons to transfer loads through weaker surface soils to stronger layers below. Pile foundations use long concrete cylinders pushed into the ground to support structures. Well foundations are typically used below water levels for bridges.
1. This document describes various tests conducted on cement and concrete to determine their properties and quality, including fineness, consistency, setting time, soundness, compressive strength, and workability.
2. Tests are also described for determining water demand and the effects of admixtures on properties like setting time and strength.
3. Common admixtures include accelerators, retarders, air-entrainers, and water-reducers, which can improve concrete workability, permeability, cracking resistance and durability.
Introduction and classification of rocksTarun kumar
Introduction and classification of rocks for building and construction materials... types of rocks and their classifications, and types of stone quarrying.
Cyclones are large-scale rotating air masses that form around low-pressure centers. They are characterized by inward spiraling winds and can cause heavy rainfall, strong winds, landfalls, and tornadoes. There are several types of cyclones including tropical cyclones that form over oceans in summer, hurricanes and typhoons being tropical cyclones, and polar cyclones that occur in polar regions in winter. Tropical cyclones are categorized from 1 to 5 based on their intensity and wind speeds.
An earthquake is caused by rapid shaking of the ground due to movement of tectonic plates or volcanic activity underground. Earthquakes are measured using seismometers which record seismic waves on instruments called seismographs. The location and magnitude of earthquakes are determined from these recordings. The Richter scale is used to describe earthquake magnitude, with greater magnitudes indicating stronger shaking. Major effects of earthquakes include damage to buildings and structures, landslides, tsunamis, and changes to the land surface like cracks and fissures. The most active seismic belts are around the Pacific Ocean, along the Alps and Himalayas, and along mid-ocean ridges.
Principles of Earthquake resistant design of StructuresTarun kumar
This document discusses principles of earthquake-resistant building design and structural vibration control technologies. It explains that earthquake-resistant structures are designed to withstand expected earthquakes while minimizing loss of life and damage. This is achieved through methods ranging from ensuring adequate structural strength and ductility to using base isolation and vibration control systems. Base isolation allows a building to survive seismic impacts by installing flexible isolators between the structure and its foundation. Passive systems require no external power while active systems counterbalance earthquake forces using computer-controlled dampers. Hybrid systems combine aspects of passive and active control for reduced costs.
Folds are bends in rock layers caused by compressive forces. There are two main types of folds: anticlines, where the rock layers bend upwards into an arch, and synclines, where the layers bend downwards into a trough. Folds can be symmetrical, with equal halves on either side of the axial plane, or asymmetrical, with unequal halves. They can also be open or closed depending on the degree of bending, and occur as similar or parallel folds based on thickness and orientation of the rock layers.
Construction of Buildings in seismic areasTarun kumar
This document discusses construction of buildings in seismic areas and provides guidelines for earthquake-resistant construction. It defines seismic belts as areas where earthquakes occur frequently and shield areas where they occur rarely or mildly. It recommends that buildings be founded on hard bedrock and avoid irregular shapes, loose soils, or cuttings. Reinforced concrete should be used with raft foundations and all parts of the building well-tied together to act as a single unit during vibrations. The document also discusses the Richter scale for measuring earthquake magnitudes and the increased damage radii from magnitude 5 to 8 earthquakes.
This document provides an analysis and design of a G+3 residential building. It includes details of the building such as dimensions, material properties, and load calculations. An equivalent static analysis is performed to calculate the seismic lateral loads at each floor level. The results of the structural analysis including bending moment and shear force diagrams are presented. Slab, beam, column and footing designs are to be covered in the thesis work according to the scope.
This document provides an overview of petrology, the scientific study of rocks. It defines different types of rocks, including igneous rocks formed by cooling magma, sedimentary rocks formed from compacted sediments, and metamorphic rocks formed by changes to existing rocks through heat, pressure, and chemical processes. It describes key concepts such as crystallization, dykes and sills which are rock intrusions, and the textures and structures of different rock types that provide clues to their formation histories. The document emphasizes that rocks have been essential to human civilization and the development of tools and materials throughout history.
Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solid substances with a defined chemical composition and crystal structure. There are over 4,900 known mineral species, with silicate minerals making up over 90% of the Earth's crust. Minerals form through crystallization as ions come together and atoms arrange themselves in an ordered pattern. They can crystallize from magma or other melts as they cool, or form through precipitation from fluids. The scientific study of minerals is called mineralogy, which examines their chemistry, crystal structure, physical properties, origins, classification, and distribution. Key physical properties used to identify minerals include color, streak, luster, hardness, cleavage, and fracture.
This document defines groundwater as water present beneath the Earth's surface, within soil pores and fractures in rock formations. An aquifer is a unit of rock or sediment that yields usable water. The water table marks the depth where pores and fractures become fully saturated. Groundwater is extracted via wells for agriculture, municipal, and industrial uses. Its study is called hydrogeology. Springs form when aquifers fill to the point of overflowing onto land. Pumping a well creates a cone of depression in the water table or pressure levels around the well. The size of this cone depends on factors like the pumping rate, aquifer properties, storage, and thickness.
Flat slabs are reinforced concrete slabs that are supported directly by columns without beams. They provide minimum depth, fast construction, and flexible column placement. There are four main types: slabs without drops and with column heads, slabs with drops and without column heads, slabs with both drops and column heads, and typical flat slabs. Column heads increase shear strength while drops increase shear strength and negative moment capacity. Flat slab systems can be either one-way or two-way depending on span ratios and load distribution. Advantages include simple formwork, no beams, and minimum depth, while disadvantages include potential interference from drops.
The document discusses water distribution systems. A distribution system receives treated water from pumping stations and delivers it through a network of pipes, valves, meters, pumps, reservoirs and hydrants. There are different types of layouts including dead-end, gridiron and circular systems. Distribution can occur via gravity, pumping or a dual system. Gravity relies on elevation while pumping requires energy. A dual system combines both for reliability and economy. The goal is to convey water at sufficient pressure and quantity to consumers while maintaining quality and providing emergency capacity.
This document discusses the geology considerations for dams and reservoirs. It describes the types of dams based on purpose, including storage, detention, diversion, coffer, and debris dams. It also discusses dam components and selection of suitable dam sites based on topographic, technical, construction, and economic factors. Geological investigations of the dam site include assessing the rock types, properties, structures, and water table. The document also summarizes types of reservoirs and geophysical studies used in geological assessments, including gravity, magnetic, seismic, radiometric, geothermal, and grouting methods.
This document discusses structural geology and stratigraphy. It defines stratigraphy as the study of rock layers and layering, which is used to study sedimentary and volcanic rocks. Stratigraphy has two subfields: lithostratigraphy which studies physical rock layers, and biostratigraphy which correlates rock layers using fossil assemblages. The document also discusses how William Smith was the "Father of English geology" for creating the first geologic map of England in the 1790s and recognizing the importance of strata and fossil markers. It provides details on lithostratigraphy focusing on rock types and layers, and biostratigraphy which correlates rock ages using contained fossils.
This document discusses water quality testing, which includes physical, chemical, and biological tests. Physical tests measure attributes like temperature, color, and turbidity. Chemical tests analyze total solids, hardness, chlorides, iron, manganese, and pH levels. Biological tests count total bacteria and test for E. coli to determine water safety. Proper water quality testing is important for treating water according to its contents and ensuring it is safe for public use.
The document discusses the key principles and processes involved in water treatment plants. It explains that the purpose is to remove particulates and pathogens that may pose health risks. It then describes several important processes used - including physical processes like sedimentation and filtration to remove microbes, chemical processes like using hydrated lime, and sludge treatment. It also discusses factors that impact settling like particle size/shape, and defines surface loading calculations to determine sedimentation tank effectiveness. Aeration is also introduced as a process to increase oxygen content in water.
This document discusses key considerations for designing a water distribution system including:
1) The type of water flow (continuous or intermittent) and method of distribution (gravity or pumping).
2) Estimating future demand based on population growth and industrial/firefighting needs.
3) Factors that influence pipe sizing such as hydraulic gradient, flow velocity, and design life.
4) Common pipe joint types like butt-welded, socket-welded, threaded, grooved, flanged, and compression joints and their relative costs, strengths, and installation complexity.
Unblocking The Main Thread - Solving ANRs and Frozen FramesSinan KOZAK
In the realm of Android development, the main thread is our stage, but too often, it becomes a battleground where performance issues arise, leading to ANRS, frozen frames, and sluggish Uls. As we strive for excellence in user experience, understanding and optimizing the main thread becomes essential to prevent these common perforrmance bottlenecks. We have strategies and best practices for keeping the main thread uncluttered. We'll examine the root causes of performance issues and techniques for monitoring and improving main thread health as wel as app performance. In this talk, participants will walk away with practical knowledge on enhancing app performance by mastering the main thread. We'll share proven approaches to eliminate real-life ANRS and frozen frames to build apps that deliver butter smooth experience.
How to Manage Internal Notes in Odoo 17 POSCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to leverage internal notes within Odoo 17 POS to enhance communication and streamline operations. Internal notes provide a platform for staff to exchange crucial information regarding orders, customers, or specific tasks, all while remaining invisible to the customer. This fosters improved collaboration and ensures everyone on the team is on the same page.
20CDE09- INFORMATION DESIGN
UNIT I INCEPTION OF INFORMATION DESIGN
Introduction and Definition
History of Information Design
Need of Information Design
Types of Information Design
Identifying audience
Defining the audience and their needs
Inclusivity and Visual impairment
Case study.
Software Engineering and Project Management - Introduction to Project ManagementPrakhyath Rai
Introduction to Project Management: Introduction, Project and Importance of Project Management, Contract Management, Activities Covered by Software Project Management, Plans, Methods and Methodologies, some ways of categorizing Software Projects, Stakeholders, Setting Objectives, Business Case, Project Success and Failure, Management and Management Control, Project Management life cycle, Traditional versus Modern Project Management Practices.
Understanding Cybersecurity Breaches: Causes, Consequences, and PreventionBert Blevins
Cybersecurity breaches are a growing threat in today’s interconnected digital landscape, affecting individuals, businesses, and governments alike. These breaches compromise sensitive information and erode trust in online services and systems. Understanding the causes, consequences, and prevention strategies of cybersecurity breaches is crucial to protect against these pervasive risks.
Cybersecurity breaches refer to unauthorized access, manipulation, or destruction of digital information or systems. They can occur through various means such as malware, phishing attacks, insider threats, and vulnerabilities in software or hardware. Once a breach happens, cybercriminals can exploit the compromised data for financial gain, espionage, or sabotage. Causes of breaches include software and hardware vulnerabilities, phishing attacks, insider threats, weak passwords, and a lack of security awareness.
The consequences of cybersecurity breaches are severe. Financial loss is a significant impact, as organizations face theft of funds, legal fees, and repair costs. Breaches also damage reputations, leading to a loss of trust among customers, partners, and stakeholders. Regulatory penalties are another consequence, with hefty fines imposed for non-compliance with data protection regulations. Intellectual property theft undermines innovation and competitiveness, while disruptions of critical services like healthcare and utilities impact public safety and well-being.
A brief introduction to quadcopter (drone) working. It provides an overview of flight stability, dynamics, general control system block diagram, and the electronic hardware.
A brand new catalog for the 2024 edition of IWISS. We have enriched our product range and have more innovations in electrician tools, plumbing tools, wire rope tools and banding tools. Let's explore together!
2. Definition:-
• The science which deals with the physical
structure and substance of the earth, their
history, and the processes which act onthem.
• The geological features of adistrict.
• The geological features of a planetarybody.
Geology Earthscience
Geo
logous
3. The importance of geology in civil engineering may
briefly as follows:
• Geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction
material, its occurrence, composition, durability and other
properties. Example of such construction materialsisbuilding
stones, road metal, clay, limestones andlaterite.
4. • The knowledge of the geological work of natural agencies
such as water, wind, ice and earthquakes helps in planningand
carrying out major civil engineering works. For example the
knowledge of erosion, transportation and deposition helps
greatly in solving the expensive problems of river control,
coastal and soilconservation.
5. • Ground water is the water which occurs inthe
subsurface rocks. The knowledge about its
quantity and depth of occurrence is required in
connection with water supply, irrigation,
excavation and many other civil engineering
works.
6. • The foundation problems of dams, bridges and buildings are
directly concerned with the geology of the area where they are
to be built. In these works drilling is commonly undertaken to
explore the ground conditions. Geology helps greatly in
interpreting the drillingdata.
• In tunneling, constructing roads, canals, docks and in
determining the stability of cuts and slopes, the knowledge
about the nature and structure of rocks is verynecessary.
• Before staring a major engineering project at a place, a
detailed geological report which is accompanied by geological
maps and sections, is prepared. Such a report helps in planning
and constructing theprojects.
7. Physical Geology:
• Physical Geology uses the scientific method to
explain natural aspects of the Earth - forexample,
how mountains form or why oil resources are
concentrated in some rocks and not inothers.
• This chapter briefly explains how and why Earth's
surface, and its interior, are constantly changing. It
relates this constant change to the majorgeological
topics of interaction of the atmosphere, water and
rock.
9. Petrology:-
• Petrology is the branch of geology that studiesthe
origin, composition, distribution and structure
of rocks.
• (from the Greek language : petra-"rock" andlogos-
"study")
• “Lithology” was once approximately synonymous
with petrography, but in current usage, lithology
focuses on macroscopic hand-sample or outcrop-scale
description of rocks while petrography is thespecialty
that deals with microscopicdetails.
10. Branches:
• There are three branches of petrology,corresponding
to the three types of rocks:
Igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary.
• Igneous petrology focuses on the compositionand
texture of igneous rocks (rocks such
as granite or basalt which have crystallized from
molten rock or magma). Igneous rocks
include volcanic and plutonic rocks.
11. • Sedimentary petrology focuses on the compositionand
texture of sedimentary rocks (rocks such
as sandstone, shale, or limestone which consist of
pieces or particles derived from other rocks or
biological or chemical deposits, and are usually bound
together in a matrix of finer material)
12. • Metamorphic petrology focuses on the composition and
texture of metamorphic rocks (rocks such as slate,
marble, gneiss, or schist which started out as
sedimentary or igneous rocks but which have undergone
chemical, mineralogical or textural changes due to
extremes of pressure, temperature orboth).
• Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of
existing rock types, in a process called metamorphism,
which means "change in form". The original rock
(protolith) is subjected to heat (temperatures greater
than150to 200°C) causing
profoundphysicaland/orchemicalchange.
14. Structural geology:
• Structural geology is the study of the three-
dimensional distribution of rock units with respect to
their deformationalhistories.
• The primary goal of structural geology is to use
measurements of present-day rock geometries to
uncover information about the history of deformation
(strain) in the rocks, and ultimately, to understand the
stress field that resulted in the observed strain and
geometries.
16. Weathering of Rocks:
• Weathering breaks down and loosens the surface minerals
of rock so they can be transported away by agents oferosion
such as water, wind andice.
• There are two types of weathering: mechanical and
chemical.
• Mechanical or physical weathering involves the breakdown
of rocks and soils through direct contact with atmospheric
conditions, such as heat, water, ice andpressure.
• The second classification, chemical weathering involves the
direct effect of atmospheric chemicals or biologically
produced chemicals also known as biological weathering in
the breakdown of rocks, soils andminerals.
19. Excavation:
• The section reviews standard excavation
practices
slopes
used to construct and
and provides current
modify rock
design and
construction guidelines for theiruse.
• The most commonare
1.Blasting (which includes drilling the holes to be
filled withexplosives)
2. Ripping
3. Drilling
20. • Blasting—the contr1olle.BdLusAeSofTeIxNploGsiv:es to excavate rock—has
been part of construction engineering for hundreds ofyears.
will• In any blasting situation, the geologic structure of the rock mass
be the most important consideration.
• It is practiced most often in mining, quarrying and civil engineering
such as dam or road construction. The result of rock blasting is often
known as a rockcut.
• Blasting is used for rock excavation on both small- andlarge-scale
projects. There are two generaltypes:
1. productionblasting
2. Controlledblasting.
22. 2. RIPPING:
• Uses a tractor with an attached tooth or teeth that is lowered
into the rock and dragged to break up material forexcavation.
• The tooth of the ripper can leave scars on the rock surface. The
tractor cannot be used on steep slopes because of risk of
overturning. Ripping is limited to relatively low densityrocks.
23. 3. DRILLING:
• Blast holes are drilled at various orientations,fromvertical
throughhorizontal.
• To create vertical holes, which are used almost exclusivelyin
production blasting, rock slope excavation uses two types of
drilling:
1. Downhole
2. Step drilling
• Horizontal drilling is used for both production and controlled
blasting because of limited drill rig access or geometry
requirements.
• Angled drilling can be performed as determined by slope face
anglerequirements.
25. • The modes of failure can be groupedinto
four primarymechanisms:
1.Planar Failure (A)
2.Wedge Failure (B)
3.Circular Failure (C)
4.Toppling Failure(D)
29. STRATIGRAPHY:
• Stratigraphy is a branch of geology which studiesrock
layers (strata) and layering(stratification).
• It is primarily used in the study of sedimentaryand
layered volcanicrocks.
• Stratigraphy includes two relatedsubfields:
1. Lithologic stratigraphy orlithostratigraphy,
2. Biologic stratigraphy orbiostratigraphy.
30. • Application of stratigraphy was by William Smith in the
1790s and early 1800s. Smith, known as the "Father of
Englishgeology“.
31. 1) Lithostratigraphy:
Lithostratigraphy is the geological scienceassociated
with the study of strata or rock layers.
Litho logy:
The litho logy of a rock unit is a description of its
physical characteristics visible at outcrop, in hand or core
samples or with low magnification microscopy, such as
color, texture, grain size, or composition.
32. Strata:
Strata are layers of rock, or sometimes soil.
Innature, strata come in many layers. It is a
term in sedimentary and historical geology; the
singular is stratum. These layers are laid down
as sediment, often in the sea, and are slowly
changed by pressure, heat and chemical action
into rocks.
34. 2) Biostratigraphy:
• Bio stratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy which
focuses on correlating and assigning relative ages of rock
strata by using the fossil assemblages contained within
them.
• Biologic stratigraphy was based on William
principle of faunal succession, which predated,
Smith's
and was
evidence for,one of the first and most powerful lines of
biologicalevolution.
38. DEFINITION:
• Paleontology is the study of what fossils tell us aboutthe
ecologies of the past, about evolution, and about our
place, as humans, in theworld.
• Paleontology incorporates knowledge from biology,
geology, ecology, anthropology, archaeology, andeven
computer science to understand the processes that have
led to the origination and eventual destruction of the
different types of organisms since lifearose.
40. • It includes the study of fossils to determine
organisms' evolution and interactions with eachother
and theirenvironments.
• The simplest definition is "the study of ancientlife”.
• Paleontology seeks information about severalaspects
of past organisms: "their identity and origin, their
environment and evolution, and what they can tell us
about the Earth's organic and inorganicpast".
41. GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE:
• The geological time scale (GTS) is a system of
chronological measurement that relates stratigraphy to
time, and is used by geologists, paleontologists, and
other Earth
relationships
scientists to describe the timing and
between events that have occurred
throughout Earth’shistory.
42. OUTCROP:
• An outcrop or rocky outcrop is a visible exposure of bedrock
or ancient superficial deposits on the surface of the Earth.
• However, in places where the overlying cover is removed
through erosion or tectonic uplift, the rock may be exposed, or
cropout.
• It may also exposed at the Earth's surface due to human
excavations such as quarrying and building of transportroutes.
45. STRIKE AND DIP:
• Strike and dip refer to the orientation or attitudeof
a geologic feature.
• The strike line of a bed, fault, or other planar feature, is aline
representing the intersection of that feature with a horizontal
plane.
• On a geologic map, this is represented with a shortstraight
line segment.
• Strike (or strike angle) can be given as either a quadrant
compass bearing of the strike line or in terms of east or westof
true north or south oriented parallel to the strikeline.
49. FOLDS:
• Folds are one of the most common geological structuresfound
inrocks.
• When a set of horizontal layers are subjected tocompressive
forces, they bend either upwards or downwards.
orcurvedor
• The bends noticed in rocks are calledFolds.
• Folds are described variously as wavyor arch
warping appearances found inrocks.
50. Types of Folds:
Anticline:
• When the beds are bent upwards, the resulting fold iscalled
anticline. This folds is convex upwards.
Anti = Opposite
Cline= Inclination
51. Syncline:
• Syncline is just opposite to anticline in its nature, when thebeds
are bent downwards the resulting fold is called syncline.
• This fold is convexdownwards.
53. Symmetrical:
• When the axial plane divides a fold into two equal halves in such
a way that one half is the nature image of another, then such fold
is called Symmetricalfolds.
54. Asymmetrical:
• If the two halves are not mirror images, then the fold is called as
asymmetrical fold.
• If the compressive forces responsible for folding are not of the
same magnitude, asymmetrical folds areformed.
56. Open folds:
• Depending on the intensity of deformation, the beds of the
folds may or may not have uniform thickness.
• If the thickness of bed is uniform throughout the fold it is
called Openfold.
57. Closed Folds:
• In a fold if the beds are thinner in the limb portions andthicker
at crests and troughs, such fold is called a closed fold.
58. FAULTS:
or zoneoffractures betweentwo blocks of• A fault isafracture
rock.
• Faults allow the blocks to move relative to eachother.
• This movement may occur rapidly, in the form of an earthquake -
or may occur slowly, in the form ofcreep.
• Faults may range in length from a few millimeters to thousands of
kilometers.
• During an earthquake, the rock on one side of the faultsuddenly
slips with respect to the other.
60. CAUSES OF FAULTING:
• Faults mainly occur in regions of structuralinstability.
• It may be recollected that faults develop mainly due to shearor
sliding failures resulting from tensional, compression forces.
• When an earthquake occurs on one of these faults, the rock on
one side of the fault slips with respect to theother.
62. FAULT PLANE:
• This is the plane along which the adjacent blocks are relatively
displaced.
• In other words, this is the fracture surface on either side of
which the rocks had moved past oneanother.
63. FOOT WALL AND HANGING WALL:
• When the fault plane is inclined the block which liesbelowthe
fault plane is called “Foot wall”.
• And the other block which rests above the fault plane iscalled
“Hangingwall”.
64. SLIP:
• The displacement that occurs during faulting is called theslip.
• The total displacement is known as the netslip.
• This may be along the strike direction or the dipdirection.
69. EARTHQUAKES
DEFINITION:
A sudden violent shaking of the ground, typically causing great
destruction, as a result of movements within the earth's crust or
volcanic action.
A sudden release of energy in the earth's crust or upper mantle,
usually caused by movement along a fault plane or by volcanic
activity and resulting in the generation of seismic waves which
can be destructive.
70. Sesimic Waves:
Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through
the Earth's layers, and are a result of an earthquake,
explosion, or a volcano that gives out low-frequency
acoustic energy.
Seismic waves are studied by geophysicists called
seismologists. Seismic wave fields are recorded by a
seismometer, hydrophone (in water), or accelerometer.ncy
acoustic energy.
71. •The propagation velocity of the waves depends on
density and elasticity of the medium.
• Velocity tends to increase with depth and ranges from
approximately 2 to 8 km/s in the Earth's crust, up to
13 km/s in the deep mantle.
72. Classification and causes of Earthquake:
Based on depth of their origin, earthquake are described as
shallow or intermediate or Deep.
•Earthquake with a focus depth less than 60km are called shallow
earthquake.
•If the depth more than 60km but less than 300km, they are called
Intermediate earthquake.
•Which have focus depth more than 300km, they are called Deep
earthquake.
73. Based on the causes responsible for their occurrence,
earthquakes are described as Tectonic or non Tectonic.
•Tectonic earthquake are exclusively due to internal
causes, due to disturbances or adjustments of geological
formations taking place in the earth’s interior, they are
les frequent, but more intensive and hence more
destructive in nature.
•The Non Tectonic earthquake on the other hand, are
generally due to external or surfacial causes. This type
of earthquake is very frequent, but minor in intensity
and generaly not destructive in nature.
74. Types:
Among the many types of seismic waves, one can
make a broad distinction between body waves and surface waves.
•Body waves travel through the interior of the Earth.
•Surface waves travel across the surface.
•Surface waves decay more slowly with distance than do body
waves, which travel in three dimensions.
75. Includes Primary and Secondary waves:
Primary waves(P-wave):
•Primary waves are compression waves that are
longitudinal in nature.
•P waves are pressure waves that travel faster than other
waves through the earth to arrive at seismograph stations
first, hence the name "Primary".
•These waves can travel through any type of material,
including fluids, and can travel at nearly twice the speed
of S waves.
•In air, they take the form of sound waves, hence they
travel at the speed of sound.
•Typical speeds are 330 m/s in air, 1450 m/s in water and
about 5000 m/s in granite.
76. Secondary waves(S-Waves):
•Secondary waves (S-waves) are shear waves that are transverse in
nature.
•Following an earthquake event, S-waves arrive at seismograph
stations after the faster-moving P-waves.
•S-waves can travel only through solids, as fluids (liquids and
gases) do not support shear stresses.
• S-waves are slower than P-waves, and speeds are typically around
60% of that of P-waves in any given material.
77. Definition:
•An Earthquake is a sudden and rapid shaking of the ground due to
passage of vibrations beneath caused by transient disturbance of
elastic or gravitational equilibrium of rocks.
•The scientific study of earthquakes is called Seismology.
•Earthquakes are measured using observations from seismometers.
• Seismic waves are recorded on instruments called seismographs.
•The time, locations, and magnitude of an earthquake can be
determined from the data recorded by seismograph stations.
78. RICHTER MAGNITUDE SCALE:
•The Richter magnitude scale was developed in 1935 by Charles
F. Richter.
•Earthquakes with magnitude of about 2.0 or less are usually
called micro earthquakes; are generally recorded only on local
seismographs.
•Events with magnitudes of about 4.5 or greater, are strong
enough to be recorded by sensitive seismographs all over the
world.
•Great earthquakes have magnitudes of 8.0 or higher.
•On the average, one earthquake of such size occurs somewhere
in the world each year.
79. CAUSES :
Natural Causes of Earthquake:
•Tectonic Movement
•Volcanic Activity
•Pressure of gases in the interior
•Landslides and avalanches
•Faulting and folding in the rock beds are responsible for causing
minor earthquakes.
80. Man-made Earthquakes:
•The impounding of large quantities of water behind dams disturbs
the crustal balance.
•The shock waves through rocks set up by the underground testing
of Atom bombs or Hydrogen bombs may be severe to cause
earthquake.
81. CAUSES :
Natural Causes of Earthquake:
•Tectonic Movement
•Volcanic Activity
•Pressure of gases in the interior
•Landslides and avalanches
•Faulting and folding in the rock beds are responsible for causing
minor earthquakes.
82. Man-made Earthquakes:
•The impounding of large quantities of water behind
dams disturbs the crustal balance.
•The shock waves through rocks set up by the
underground testing of Atom bombs or Hydrogen
bombs may be severe to cause earthquake.
83. EFFECTS:
Destructive Effects:
•Earthquake causes dismantling of buildings, bridge and
other structures at or near epicenter.
•Rails are folded, underground wires broken.
•Earthquakes originate sea waves called Tsunamis.
•Earthquakes result in the formation of cracks and
fissures on the ground formation.
•The earthquakes cause landslides.
•Landslide due to earthquake may block valleys to form
lakes.
84. SEISMIC BELT:
Narrow geographic zone on the Earth's surface along
which most earthquake activity occurs.
The outermost layer of the Earth (lithosphere) is made
up of several large tectonic plates.
There are three main seismic belts in the world:
1.Circum-Pacific seismic belt
2.Alpine-Himalayan seismic belt
3.Ridge seismic belt
87. SEISMIC WAVES:
•Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth's
layers, and are a result of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, magma
movement, large landslides and large man-made explosions that
give out low-frequency acoustic energy.
•Seismic wave fields are recorded by a seismometer, hydrophone
(in water), or accelerometer.
P-waves:
•P-waves are a type of body wave, that travel through a continuum
and are the first waves from an earthquake to arrive at a
seismograph.
•Typical values for P-wave velocity in earthquakes are in the range
5 to 8 km/s.
88. S-WAVES:
• S-waves, secondary waves, or shear waves (sometimes called an
elastic S-wave) are a type of elastic wave.
• The S-wave moves as a shear or transverse wave, so motion is
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
•Velocity tends to increase with depth and ranges from
approximately 2 to 8 km/s in the Earth's crust, up to 13 km/s in the
deep mantle.
89. L-WAVES:
• The third general type of earthquake wave is called a surface
wave, reason being is that its motion is restricted to near the ground
surface.
• Such waves correspond to ripples of water that travel across a
lake.
• The typical range of velocities is between 2 and 6 km/second.
91. PRECAUTIONS:
•First do the soil test. Structures will be constructed after testing the
soils compaction tendency.
•Design of the structures or buildings should be made by professional
engineer.
• Use rods according to the foundation type.
• The rod must provide necessary earthquake resistance to the building
or structure.
•Maintain the quality of cement, rod and sand. Provide necessary rod in
the joint of foundation and grade beam.
• This helps to provide extra earthquake resistance to the structures or
buildings.
•Check column and slab design requirements by the authority.
92. •For earthquake resistance purposes, there will be no connection in
the intersection of beam column.
•Columns of the structures or buildings need to be made strong to
provide needed resistance. Column size can be increased from the
foundation necessarily.
97. LANDSLIDES:
•A landslide is the movement of rock, debris or earth down a
slope.
•They result from the failure of the materials which make up the
hill slope and are driven by the force of gravity.
•Landslides are known also as landslips, slumps or slope failure.
•This is the most destructive and turbulent form of landslide.
• Flows have a high water content which causes the slope material
to lose cohesion, turning it into a slurry.
99. LANDSLIDES HAZARDS:
•Although landslides are primarily associated with mountainous
regions, they can also occur in areas of generally low relief.
• In low-relief areas, landslides occur as cut-and fill failures
(roadway and building excavations).
•Slope saturation by water is a primary cause of landslides.
•This effect can occur in the form of intense rainfall, snowmelt,
changes in ground-water levels.
100. Natural causes include:
• Elevation of pore water pressure by saturation of slope material
from either intense or prolonged rainfall and seepage
• Vibrations caused by earthquakes
• Undercutting of cliffs and banks by waves or river erosion
• Volcanic eruptions
Human causes include:
• Removal of vegetation
• Interference with, or changes to, natural drainage
• Leaking pipes such as water and sewer reticulation
• Modification of slopes by construction of roads, railways,
buildings, etc
101. 5. Modification of slopes by construction of roads, railways,
buildings, etc
6. Mining and quarrying activities