barch_building material-1_Types of lime, Classification of lime, comparison between fat lime and hydraulic lime, Manufacturing
process slaking, Hardening – Testing and Storage, Lime putty, Precautions in handling and uses of
lime.
Lime is produced by excavating limestone, crushing it, and calcining it in kilns at high temperatures to produce calcium oxide (quicklime). Quicklime is then slaked by mixing with water to produce calcium hydroxide (slaked lime). Slaked lime hardens over time as it reacts with carbon dioxide in the air. Lime is used to produce lime mortars and plasters due to its plasticity and ability to harden through carbonation. Hydraulic lime contains lime silicates which allow it to set and harden even when submerged in water.
This document discusses different types of bricks and brick bonding techniques. It describes common burnt clay bricks, sand lime bricks, fly ash bricks, AAC bricks, hollow bricks, and bio bricks. Each brick type has different properties like strength, weight, insulation, and environmental impact. The document also examines various brick bonds like stretcher bond, header bond, Flemish bond, English bond, and their structural applications in walls. Different bonding patterns help distribute loads and provide stability in masonry construction.
The document discusses the process of cement manufacturing. It begins with the raw materials used, which include limestone, clay, iron oxide, and aluminum. These materials are quarries, crushed, and transported to a plant for storage. They are then ground together and preheated before being burned in a kiln at 1500°C to produce clinker. The clinker is cooled, ground with gypsum, and stored in silos before being packaged and distributed. The document outlines the characteristics, types, grades, setting process, optimal storage conditions, and common uses of cement in construction.
Bricks have been used as a building material since 7000BC, originally made of sun-dried mud but later fired bricks proved more durable. Bricks are now one of the most commonly used building materials after wood. They are manufactured through processes like soft mud, dry press, and extrusion from raw materials like clay, calcium silicate, or concrete. Bricks provide benefits like strength, fire resistance, insulation, and durability making them a versatile and long-lasting building material.
This presentation consists of sources, formation, types and applications of a construction material called calcium oxide better known as lime. This material is now largely replaced by cement but it still remains one of the most important material due to it being the raw material for cement production as well as gaining popularity in recent times due to it being sustainable compared to cement used in construction.
This document discusses the process of manufacturing bricks. It begins by describing the composition of bricks, noting that good bricks should contain 20-30% alumina, 50-60% silica, and small amounts of lime, iron oxide, and magnesia. The document then outlines the key steps in brick manufacturing: preparation of clay, moulding, drying, and burning. For moulding, it describes hand and machine methods, and for burning it explains the three stages of dehydration, oxidation, and vitrification. The document provides details on each stage of the manufacturing process.
All you need to know about timber in just a single ppt with interesting slides. Hope it hlps! This ppt was created as the result of a teamwork with my classmates
Building mortars are mixtures used for jointing bricks, stones, and blocks. They are made by adding water to a mixture of fine aggregates like sand and a binding material such as cement, lime, or gypsum. Mortars are used in brick/stone masonry joints and plastering to bind units together, provide structure strength and durability, and form a protective weather-resistant layer between masonry courses. Common types include cement mortars, lime mortars, and clay/mud mortars.
This document discusses different types and properties of sand. It describes sand as a mixture of small rock and mineral particles between 0.06 mm and 2 mm in size. The main components of sand are quartz and feldspar. Sand comes in different colors depending on its mineral composition, and there are various types including river sand, sea sand, volcanic sand, and heavy mineral sand. Sand is classified based on particle size, with very fine, fine, medium, and coarse categories.
Natural & Artificial stones & its uses in designing Ramya S
Rock is a natural solid aggregate of minerals or mineraloids that make up the Earth's crust. There are three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Natural stone refers to blocks cut from quarries that are used for construction, including granite, marble, limestone, travertine, slate, basalt, quartzite, and sandstone. Each has different properties making them suitable for various applications like flooring, countertops, and buildings. Artificial stones are man-made mixtures that imitate natural stones through the use of materials like resin, cement, and stone chips.
This document discusses different types of cement. It begins with a brief history of cement, noting that Romans were early developers of hydraulic cement. It then categorizes and describes various cement types including natural cement, Portland cement, Portland limestone cement, blended cement, pozzolan lime cement, masonry cement, aluminous cement, and fly ash cement. It provides details on their compositions and typical uses. The document concludes with an overview of cement types commonly used in India.
Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided mineral particles. The most common constituent is silica in the form of quartz. Sand is classified based on its formation, size, and composition. Different types of sand like pit sand, river sand, sea sand, and masonry sand are used for various construction purposes like bricks, plastering, mortar, and concrete. Properties of good sand include being clean, coarse, chemically inert, durable, and well graded with a range of particle sizes. Sand is tested for quality using sieve analysis and tests for organic impurities and clay/silt content.
Powerpoint presentation on CEMENT {PPT}Prateek Soni
Cement is a mixture of calcareous, siliceous, and argillaceous substances that is used as a binding agent in construction. It is produced through a process involving mixing raw materials, burning in a rotary kiln, and grinding the clinker produced. The manufacturing process can be either dry or wet. Key tests are conducted on cement to check properties like strength, color, presence of lumps, and solubility in water. There are various types of cement suited for different applications.
This document discusses clay products used in building construction. It describes how clay is formed and composed of minerals like kaolinite. Clay is classified based on its formation (residual or transported) and characteristics (china clay, fire clay, vitrified clay, brick clay). Brick clay is most commonly used to manufacture building bricks. The process of brick making involves selecting suitable clay, preparing and molding the clay into bricks, drying the bricks, firing them in kilns, and cooling the finished bricks. The ideal composition of brick clay includes 20-30% alumina, 50-60% silica, and 4-6% iron oxide and lime to provide strength and bind the bricks during firing.
Concrete
The word concrete comes from the Latin word "concretus". Which means compact.Now a days concrete is most common and necessary things in our life.
The history of cementing materials together goes back to the time when prehistoric man prepare his cave to build shelter.
He used mud and clay to fill the gap between stone. To keep out the wind and cold.
Later the Assyrians and Babylonians used clay as their bonding substance and straw to make a shape.
The Egyptians used lime and gypsum and crushed stone to create a material that would harden even better.
This document presents a summary of different types of bricks. It defines bricks and discusses their sizes, including modular and traditional bricks. It then describes several categories of bricks including building bricks (e.g. clay, sand lime, engineering), paving bricks, fire bricks, and special bricks. Building bricks are used for wall construction, paving bricks are used as pavers, and special bricks are used for uncommon designs. Bricks can also be classified based on their manufacturing quality. The document was created by students at Shree Santkrupa College of Engineering & Technology and discusses bricks to educate about their various types.
Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles.
the most common constituent of sand is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz.
This document summarizes the Cardox technology provided by ATD Pressure Gas System for removing material build-up and blockages in industrial processes. Cardox uses pressurized carbon dioxide gas to blast away unwanted deposits in a safe and effective manner. It has been used for over 60 years in various industries like steel, cement, pulp and paper. The document explains how the Cardox tubes work and the advantages they provide over alternative methods like reducing downtime and increasing worker safety.
This document contains 51 images and captions that provide an overview of Inca architecture, sites, and structures in and around Cuzco, Peru between 1400-1532 CE. Some of the key sites and structures discussed include the Qorikancha temple in Cuzco, the fortress of Saqsawaman, the mountainside city of Machu Picchu, and the agricultural center of Ollantaytambo. The images show examples of Inca masonry techniques, carved stones, shrines integrated with the natural landscape, and structures used for religious ceremonies, burials, and agricultural production. The document emphasizes how Inca architecture was designed in consideration of the local geography and incorporated natural features like caves
The document discusses manufacturing process selection and design. It covers key aspects like product design, process planning, product and process flow characteristics, types of product flows including line, batch and project flows. It also discusses factors that affect process choice like market conditions, capital requirements and technology. The document provides examples of layouts in different industries like automobiles, cement plants and describes different types of processes and process flow structures.
Term Project Paper on Design of Shallow and Deep Foundation for a cement plan...Rakibul Hasan,MEng,EIT
•Designed foundations for given loads and conditions using PLAXIS and L-Pile for the design-analysis.
•Used Microsoft Excel for developing formulas and calculated capacity, lateral capacity, settlement, group pile settlement and lateral deflection of footing to yield best economical and sustainable design.
The document summarizes the water system designed and built by the Inca at the archaeological site of Machu Picchu in Peru. The Inca engineers located a natural spring and built a 749m long stone canal with a 3% slope to carry water from the spring to a series of 16 fountains within the city. The fountains were arranged hierarchically and integrated with sophisticated drainage and irrigation systems to supply the population with water and protect against erosion. The system is still functional today, demonstrating advanced hydrological engineering by the Inca civilization.
Granite is an igneous rock composed of feldspar, mica, and silica that comes in various colors like gray and red. Medium-grained granite is well-suited for construction while fine-grained granite can be polished but is harder to work. Sandstone is a sedimentary rock consisting of fragments cemented together, and it comes in colors like white, yellow, and brown. Marble is a metamorphic rock formed from limestone that is easy to carve and comes in colors such as white, black, and green.
This document describes Cardox technology for removing material buildup using pressurized carbon dioxide gas tubes. It is presented by John Stulack of ATD Pressure Gas Systems. The technology has been used safely for over 60 years to clear blockages in industrial processes like lime production, pulp/paper, cement, and bulk material storage. It works by detonating a sealed tube containing liquid carbon dioxide, which expands into an inert gas that blasts away deposits through a discharge nozzle. Key advantages are improved safety, reduced downtime, and preventing problematic buildups from occurring.
Inca architecture is known for precise stone masonry without mortar. Their buildings featured symmetrical enclosures housing rectangular structures. Ollantaytambo is an Inca site featuring trapezoidal doors, windows and niches made of local granite. The Incas developed earthquake-resistant techniques including trapezoidal openings that tilt inward, rounded corners, and interlocking stone blocks. They precisely cut stone blocks using tools and wedges to fit structures together tightly without gaps.
The document summarizes a business model for an automotive company called Voiture in India. It outlines Voiture's objectives to provide high quality, low cost vehicles to customers. It describes Voiture's product range including hatchbacks and sedans. The document also discusses Voiture's operations strategy of just-in-time manufacturing and site selection along the Mumbai-Pune highway. It concludes by noting India's growing automotive sector and population to support consumer demand.
Quicklime, also known as burnt lime, is produced by heating limestone to high temperatures in a lime kiln, which decomposes it into calcium oxide. Hydrated lime is then produced by slaking the calcium oxide with water. Lime has many uses including in construction materials like mortar and plaster, water and sewage treatment, paper making, agriculture, pollution control, and forensics. The lime production process involves extracting limestone from quarries, selecting stones based on composition, calcining it in kilns fueled by gases or coal, and producing quicklime through the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate in the limestone.
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed of the shells of dead sea creatures that built up over millions of years. It exists in various forms from soft chalk to hard limestone to the hardest marble. Limestone is mined through both open cast and underground mining. It has many chemical and industrial uses such as in cement, glass, paper, building materials, road construction, and more. Key processes in working with limestone include calcination to produce quicklime, hydration to produce hydrated lime, and reaction with carbon dioxide to produce precipitated calcium carbonate.
This document provides specifications for white washing and color washing building surfaces. It outlines how to properly erect scaffolding and prepare various surfaces. It describes the process for preparing lime wash, including ingredients and application methods. Finally, it specifies that for new work, 3 or more coats of white wash should be applied until a smooth, uniform finish is achieved and that color washes require a sample to be approved before application.
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of calcium carbonate. It forms from skeletal fragments of marine organisms and makes up about 10% of all sedimentary rocks. Limestone erodes over thousands to millions of years through water and weak acids, forming caves and karst landscapes. It has many uses including building material, road base, fillers, and feedstock for other materials. Stalactites form on cave ceilings through dripping water depositing calcium carbonate over time.
Inca Civilization PPT made on our 3rd year History class. There are videos in the PPT and they will just automatically play (download file for best viewing)
This document discusses building stones and gypsum products used in construction. It describes 8 common building stones like granite, limestone, marble and slate, providing their characteristics, classifications, colors and building uses. It also discusses various gypsum products including plasters, gypsum boards, tiles, precast wall panels and lime. Plasters are described in detail along with their compositions and uses. Gypsum boards and tiles as well as precast wall panels are also defined. Finally, the document notes that hydrated lime is used in making the finish coat of interior plaster.
This document provides specifications for different classes of buildings and roads. It defines specifications as describing the nature, materials, and workmanship for a construction project. Building specifications are classified as general or brief (covering foundation, walls, roofing, etc. for different classes) and detailed. It provides the general specifications for various components like foundation, walls, roofing, flooring and finishing for first, second, third and fourth class buildings. Road specifications include details for subgrade, soiling, intercoat, topcoat, brick edging and considerations for heavy traffic or weak subgrade.
Stone masonry involves shaping stone into geometric shapes and arranging them, often with mortar. There are different types of stonemasons who specialize in tasks like quarrying, sawing, carving, fixing, and memorial carving. Stonemasons use various tools like chisels and mallets to shape igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary stones. They undergo comprehensive training and the trade has existed for thousands of years, playing an important role in building cathedrals, castles, and other stone structures throughout history. Modern tools have made aspects of the work easier but many traditional techniques remain.
This presentation discusses plastering and provides details on materials, tools, types of plaster, and procedures. It introduces plastering as a process of covering rough surfaces with a plastic material to create smooth, durable coatings. The main types of plaster covered are lime, cement, mud, and stucco plaster. Procedures for cement plastering including surface preparation, application of preliminary, first, and second coats are outlined. Common plastering issues like cracking, efflorescence, filling out, and blowing are defined along with solutions. Advantages of durability and ease of application are balanced with disadvantages of repair costs and potential for cracking.
Plastering Process (Cement/Masonry/Finishing Layer)Zelkhan
Plastering process which involve plastering on brick walls. This paper explains the mono plastering process which involve only 1 layer of plaster, rather than the usual 3 layer of plaster.
If you find these presentation to be beneficial, I would like to welcome you to donate, and support my work in Cement & Concrete Industry. Donation can be made using the following currency/medium:
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The document discusses lime, including its types, classification, manufacturing process, properties, and uses. It defines lime as products derived from burnt limestone such as quicklime and hydrated lime. There are three main types - quick lime, slaked lime, and hydraulic lime. Lime is classified based on its hydraulic properties into Class A, B, and C. The manufacturing process involves collecting limestone, burning it in kilns or clamps to produce quicklime, and then slaking the quicklime with water. Lime is used widely in construction for mortar, plaster, and concrete due to its binding properties.
This document provides an overview of lime as a construction material. It discusses the production of lime by heating limestone, resulting in calcium oxide. Lime is classified as fat lime, hydraulic lime, or poor lime depending on clay content. Fat lime contains 95% calcium oxide and is used for plastering and thin mortar joints. Hydraulic lime sets under water due to clay content and is divided into feebly, moderately, and eminently hydraulic types. Poor lime contains over 30% clay, slakes slowly, and has poor binding properties. The document also defines relevant technical terms and classifications of lime according to the ISI.
Lime has been used as a cementing material for centuries. It is obtained by calcining limestone or kankar, which produces quicklime. Quicklime is then slaked by adding water, producing hydrated lime. There are three main types of lime - fat lime made from pure limestone, hydraulic lime made from kankar containing clay impurities, and poor lime containing more impurities. Hydraulic lime can set under water and is used where strength is required. Lime is manufactured through processes of burning in kilns or clamps, and slaking the produced quicklime. Precautions must be taken when handling lime due to the heat released during slaking and its irritating nature.
This document provides information on cementing materials, including clay and lime. It discusses the properties, classification, and types of clay. It also describes the production of lime by heating limestone, and the types of lime including fat, hydraulic, and poor lime. Finally, it outlines the manufacture of cement, including the dry and wet processes. The key compounds in cement clinker and their roles in strength development and setting are also summarized.
Lime is a white caustic substance obtained by heating limestone, which produces calcium oxide. There are several types of lime including non-hydraulic lime, hydrated lime, and hydraulic lime. Non-hydraulic lime is made by burning limestone and adding water, while hydrated lime and hydraulic lime set faster due to their composition and ability to set under water. Lime has various uses in construction including in plasters, mortars, and soil remediation. Gypsum is a soft mineral composed of hydrated calcium sulfate and is used to produce plaster of paris as well as for wall finishes and other construction and medical applications.
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of calcium carbonate or calcium and magnesium carbonate. It forms in various types including coquina, chalk, travertine, and oolite. Limestone has many uses in construction as a building stone, in road base, and to produce cement. It is quarried and can be used in building, road construction, and cement production depending on its quality. Limestone has advantages as a natural, consistent material but may wear more easily than other building materials.
Cement class 12 notes of cement chapter.pdfSafalPoudel6
Cement is produced through a process involving crushing and grinding raw materials such as limestone and clay, heating the materials in a kiln to form clinker, cooling and grinding the clinker, and adding gypsum. The main raw materials used are limestone, clay, iron oxide, and aluminum oxide. During the heating process in a rotary kiln, the raw materials undergo chemical reactions to form calcium silicates and calcium aluminates which fuse together to form clinker. Gypsum is added to the ground clinker to regulate the setting time of cement.
Lime is prepared by crushing limestone, heating it to 2000°F to release CO2, resulting in calcium oxide. When mixed with water, lime sets slowly over time by absorbing carbon from the air to form calcium carbonate. Lime is used for soil stabilization, masonry, plaster, and purifying water. It is cheaper than cement but possesses less strength and sets more slowly. Cement is more brittle, sets rapidly when mixed with water, provides high strength, and can be used for important structures, but is more expensive than lime.
This document provides information about cementing materials and the cement manufacturing process. It discusses various types of lime like fat lime, hydraulic lime, and poor lime. It also describes the production of cement, including crushing limestone, heating it in a kiln to form clinker, cooling the clinker, grinding it with gypsum to produce cement powder, and storing and packaging the final product. The key compounds formed during cement manufacturing are also identified.
The document discusses the manufacturing process of cement. It begins with crushing and mixing of raw materials such as limestone, clay, and iron ore. The raw materials are then heated in a kiln to form clinker. Clinker is ground into a fine powder to produce cement. When mixed with water, cement undergoes chemical reactions that result in hardening over time as it hydrates. The hydration process involves calcium silicates and aluminates reacting with water to form compounds like calcium silicate hydrate and calcium aluminate hydrates.
This document provides an overview of lime and various types of cement. It discusses the sources and classification of lime, as well as its uses. It also covers the composition and functions of ingredients in ordinary Portland cement. Different types of cement are described, including rapid hardening cement, low heat cement, sulphate resisting cement, and others. Key tests for cement, such as consistency, setting time, and soundness are outlined.
Clay and clay products are formed through the weathering and erosion of rocks. Clay is composed mainly of fine particles of hydrous aluminum silicates and other minerals. Bricks are a common clay product used in construction. Good brick earth contains 20-30% alumina, 35-50% silica, and 20-30% silt. Bricks are manufactured through molding, drying, and burning clay at high temperatures. Proper firing leads to high strength bricks with less than 20% water absorption. Common defects in bricks include over or under burning, black cores, and efflorescence.
This document provides information about cement, including its history, definition, manufacture, and composition. It discusses the four main processes used to manufacture cement: wet, semi-wet, semi-dry, and dry. The wet and dry processes are described in more detail. It also summarizes the classification of cements as hydraulic or non-hydraulic, and provides examples of their applications. Finally, it outlines the key functions of cement and its main constituent materials like lime, silica, alumina, and others.
Clay is a key ingredient in making structural clay products like bricks. It consists mainly of kaolinite along with other minerals. Good brick earth contains 20-30% alumina, 50-60% silica, and small amounts of lime, iron oxide, and magnesia. Harmful ingredients to avoid include alkalis, limestone, iron pyrites, pebbles, and organic matter. Bricks are manufactured by preparing the earth, moulding, drying, and burning in kilns. Common brick bonds used in construction include stretcher bond, header bond, English bond, and Flemish bond.
This document discusses the properties and uses of lime as a cementing material. It provides an introduction to lime, describing how it is manufactured through calcination of limestone. The key types of lime - fat lime, hydraulic lime, and lean lime - are defined based on their chemical composition and properties. The document outlines the properties of lime that make it suitable for construction applications, such as its plasticity, sand carrying capacity, and ability to set and harden through reactions with water and carbon dioxide in the air.
This document discusses fire bricks and sand lime bricks. It covers what they are, their ingredients, manufacturing processes, types/classifications, uses, and masonry/how to use them.
Fire bricks are made primarily to withstand high temperatures and contain silica, alumina, and other oxides. Their manufacturing process involves selection of materials, preparation, molding, drying, and firing. Sand lime bricks contain sand, lime, and water and are made through a similar process.
The document compares the ingredients and properties of fire bricks and sand lime bricks. It also discusses common defects in bricks and classifications based on quality.
The document provides specifications for lime mortar and excavation and foundation work. It discusses the properties and types of lime mortar, including non-hydraulic and hydraulic lime mortar. It also outlines the process of excavation, including depth, methods such as open cut and braced excavation, and backfilling. Measurements for excavation work and appropriate equipment for different soil conditions are also specified.
Cement is topic;like and give credit for my free work
cement
cement and its types
Manufacturing of cement
uses of cement
wet process
dry process
portland cement
raw materials used in cement
field tests for cement
This document contains a question bank with multiple choice and short answer questions about the history of architecture from Paleolithic to Roman periods. The questions cover topics like Paleolithic settlements, Neolithic shelters, Egyptian pyramids and temples, Mesopotamian ziggurats and palaces, Greek orders and public spaces, and Roman buildings, orders, and engineering achievements.
The document discusses the archaeological site of Uruk in Iraq, including the White Temple built on top of the Anu Ziggurat between 3517-3358 BCE. It would have towered over the city and been visible from a great distance. Ziggurats were symbolic and political centers as representations of the gods. The White Temple was rectangular with rooms on either side and three entrances. It was entirely whitewashed inside and out. The document also discusses the later sites of Ur, including the Royal Graves dating between 2600-2000 BCE containing rich burials, artifacts like the Standard of Ur and Queen's Lyre, and the ziggurat of Ur built in 2100 BCE.
HISTORY OF ARCHITECURE AND CULTURE 1_GREEK_Landscape and culture of Greece – Minoan and Mycenaean cultures – Hellenic and Hellenistic
cultures – Greek character – Greek polis and democracy – Greek city planning – architecture in the
archaic and classic periods – Domestic architecture; Public Buildings: Agora, stoas, theaters,
bouletrion and stadias – Greek temple: evolution and classification – Parthenon and Erection –
orders in architecture: Doric, lonic, Corinthian – optical illusions in architecture.
building materials1_architecture_Classification of rocks, Sources, Seasoning, Quarrying of stones, Dressing, Characteristics of
stones, Testing of stones, Common building stones and their uses. Masonary and paving. Stone
veneering, preservation of stones Deterioration of stones, Durability, Preservation, Selection of
stones, Artificial stones.
building materilas-1_architecture_Straw as a building material-physical aspects - Basics, Fire, moisture, insects and pests proof.
Plastering straw bale walls, straw bale roof.
building materials 1_architecture_Bamboo – Bamboo as plant classification, species, geographical distribution, Anatomy of Bamboo,
Properties, strength, processing, harvesting, working of Bamboo tools – Treatment and preservation
of Bamboo and uses of Bamboo.
Fundamentals of Soil Science, Types of soils, Principles of Soil Stabilization, Characteristics of
core, Types of Stabilizers, Requirements and Types of mudwall building and surface protection.
This document provides an introduction to architectural theory and elements. It begins by defining architecture and its origins. It then discusses the functional, aesthetic and psychological contexts for architecture in satisfying human needs. It introduces various functional aspects like site, structure, skin, services, use and circulation. It also introduces Gestalt ideas of visual perception. Finally, it discusses fundamental architectural elements like point, line, plane, form and space.
How to Create Sequence Numbers in Odoo 17Celine George
Sequence numbers are mainly used to identify or differentiate each record in a module. Sequences are customizable and can be configured in a specific pattern such as suffix, prefix or a particular numbering scheme. This slide will show how to create sequence numbers in odoo 17.
Integrated Marketing Communications (IMC)- Concept, Features, Elements, Role of advertising in IMC
Advertising: Concept, Features, Evolution of Advertising, Active Participants, Benefits of advertising to Business firms and consumers.
Classification of advertising: Geographic, Media, Target audience and Functions.
Lecture_Notes_Unit4_Chapter_8_9_10_RDBMS for the students affiliated by alaga...Murugan Solaiyappan
Title: Relational Database Management System Concepts(RDBMS)
Description:
Welcome to the comprehensive guide on Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) concepts, tailored for final year B.Sc. Computer Science students affiliated with Alagappa University. This document covers fundamental principles and advanced topics in RDBMS, offering a structured approach to understanding databases in the context of modern computing. PDF content is prepared from the text book Learn Oracle 8I by JOSE A RAMALHO.
Key Topics Covered:
Main Topic : DATA INTEGRITY, CREATING AND MAINTAINING A TABLE AND INDEX
Sub-Topic :
Data Integrity,Types of Integrity, Integrity Constraints, Primary Key, Foreign key, unique key, self referential integrity,
creating and maintain a table, Modifying a table, alter a table, Deleting a table
Create an Index, Alter Index, Drop Index, Function based index, obtaining information about index, Difference between ROWID and ROWNUM
Target Audience:
Final year B.Sc. Computer Science students at Alagappa University seeking a solid foundation in RDBMS principles for academic and practical applications.
About the Author:
Dr. S. Murugan is Associate Professor at Alagappa Government Arts College, Karaikudi. With 23 years of teaching experience in the field of Computer Science, Dr. S. Murugan has a passion for simplifying complex concepts in database management.
Disclaimer:
This document is intended for educational purposes only. The content presented here reflects the author’s understanding in the field of RDBMS as of 2024.
Feedback and Contact Information:
Your feedback is valuable! For any queries or suggestions, please contact muruganjit@agacollege.in
Front Desk Management in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
Front desk officers are responsible for taking care of guests and customers. Their work mainly involves interacting with customers and business partners, either in person or through phone calls.
Views in Odoo - Advanced Views - Pivot View in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, the pivot view is a graphical representation of data that allows users to analyze and summarize large datasets quickly. It's a powerful tool for generating insights from your business data.
The pivot view in Odoo is a valuable tool for analyzing and summarizing large datasets, helping you gain insights into your business operations.
The Jewish Trinity : Sabbath,Shekinah and Sanctuary 4.pdfJackieSparrow3
we may assume that God created the cosmos to be his great temple, in which he rested after his creative work. Nevertheless, his special revelatory presence did not fill the entire earth yet, since it was his intention that his human vice-regent, whom he installed in the garden sanctuary, would extend worldwide the boundaries of that sanctuary and of God’s presence. Adam, of course, disobeyed this mandate, so that humanity no longer enjoyed God’s presence in the little localized garden. Consequently, the entire earth became infected with sin and idolatry in a way it had not been previously before the fall, while yet in its still imperfect newly created state. Therefore, the various expressions about God being unable to inhabit earthly structures are best understood, at least in part, by realizing that the old order and sanctuary have been tainted with sin and must be cleansed and recreated before God’s Shekinah presence, formerly limited to heaven and the holy of holies, can dwell universally throughout creation
Join educators from the US and worldwide at this year’s conference, themed “Strategies for Proficiency & Acquisition,” to learn from top experts in world language teaching.
No, it's not a robot: prompt writing for investigative journalismPaul Bradshaw
How to use generative AI tools like ChatGPT and Gemini to generate story ideas for investigations, identify potential sources, and help with coding and writing.
A talk from the Centre for Investigative Journalism Summer School, July 2024
Credit limit improvement system in odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo 17, confirmed and uninvoiced sales orders are now factored into a partner's total receivables. As a result, the credit limit warning system now considers this updated calculation, leading to more accurate and effective credit management.
The membership Module in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
Some business organizations give membership to their customers to ensure the long term relationship with those customers. If the customer is a member of the business then they get special offers and other benefits. The membership module in odoo 17 is helpful to manage everything related to the membership of multiple customers.
Is Email Marketing Really Effective In 2024?Rakesh Jalan
Slide 1
Is Email Marketing Really Effective in 2024?
Yes, Email Marketing is still a great method for direct marketing.
Slide 2
In this article we will cover:
- What is Email Marketing?
- Pros and cons of Email Marketing.
- Tools available for Email Marketing.
- Ways to make Email Marketing effective.
Slide 3
What Is Email Marketing?
Using email to contact customers is called Email Marketing. It's a quiet and effective communication method. Mastering it can significantly boost business. In digital marketing, two long-term assets are your website and your email list. Social media apps may change, but your website and email list remain constant.
Slide 4
Types of Email Marketing:
1. Welcome Emails
2. Information Emails
3. Transactional Emails
4. Newsletter Emails
5. Lead Nurturing Emails
6. Sponsorship Emails
7. Sales Letter Emails
8. Re-Engagement Emails
9. Brand Story Emails
10. Review Request Emails
Slide 5
Advantages Of Email Marketing
1. Cost-Effective: Cheaper than other methods.
2. Easy: Simple to learn and use.
3. Targeted Audience: Reach your exact audience.
4. Detailed Messages: Convey clear, detailed messages.
5. Non-Disturbing: Less intrusive than social media.
6. Non-Irritating: Customers are less likely to get annoyed.
7. Long Format: Use detailed text, photos, and videos.
8. Easy to Unsubscribe: Customers can easily opt out.
9. Easy Tracking: Track delivery, open rates, and clicks.
10. Professional: Seen as more professional; customers read carefully.
Slide 6
Disadvantages Of Email Marketing:
1. Irrelevant Emails: Costs can rise with irrelevant emails.
2. Poor Content: Boring emails can lead to disengagement.
3. Easy Unsubscribe: Customers can easily leave your list.
Slide 7
Email Marketing Tools
Choosing a good tool involves considering:
1. Deliverability: Email delivery rate.
2. Inbox Placement: Reaching inbox, not spam or promotions.
3. Ease of Use: Simplicity of use.
4. Cost: Affordability.
5. List Maintenance: Keeping the list clean.
6. Features: Regular features like Broadcast and Sequence.
7. Automation: Better with automation.
Slide 8
Top 5 Email Marketing Tools:
1. ConvertKit
2. Get Response
3. Mailchimp
4. Active Campaign
5. Aweber
Slide 9
Email Marketing Strategy
To get good results, consider:
1. Build your own list.
2. Never buy leads.
3. Respect your customers.
4. Always provide value.
5. Don’t email just to sell.
6. Write heartfelt emails.
7. Stick to a schedule.
8. Use photos and videos.
9. Segment your list.
10. Personalize emails.
11. Ensure mobile-friendliness.
12. Optimize timing.
13. Keep designs clean.
14. Remove cold leads.
Slide 10
Uses of Email Marketing:
1. Affiliate Marketing
2. Blogging
3. Customer Relationship Management (CRM)
4. Newsletter Circulation
5. Transaction Notifications
6. Information Dissemination
7. Gathering Feedback
8. Selling Courses
9. Selling Products/Services
Read Full Article:
https://digitalsamaaj.com/is-email-marketing-effective-in-2024/
1. LIME
The use of lime as a cementing material has been made since ancient times.
The Egyptians & Romans made use of this material for various constructional purposes.
Even in India, big palaces, bridges, temples, forts, monuments, etc. were constructed with lime.
At present, places where lime is locally available & when there is acute shortage of cement, lime
certainly provides a cheap & reliable alternative to cement.
Definitions
Calcination:
o The heating of limestone to redness in contact with air is known as ‘Calcination’.
Hydraulicity:
o Property of lime by which it sets or hardens in damp places, water or thick masonry
walls with no circulation of air.
Lime:
o Due to calcinations, the moisture & carbon-dioxide are removed from it & the remaining
product is known as ‘Lime’.
o Chemical reaction – CaCo3 = CaO + Co2
Quick lime:
o Lime obtained by the calcinations of pure limestone is known as ‘Quick Lime’ or ‘Caustic
lime’.
o It is amorphous (i.e) not crystalline & has no affinity for carbonic acid, but has affinity for
moisture.
o The quick lime as it comes out from kilns is known as the ‘lump lime’.
Setting:
o The process of hardening of lime after being converted into paste form is known as
‘setting’.
o It is different from drying because incase of drying, water evaporates from lime & no
setting action takes place.
Slaked lime:
o Product obtained by slaking of quick lime is known as ‘Slaked lime’ or ‘hydrate of lime’.
1
2. LIME
o It is in the form of white powder & should always be used as fresh as possible because it
has a tendency to absorb carbonic acid from atmosphere & thus gets converted into
carbonate of lime.
o Such slaked lime becomes useless as it loses its setting properties.
o Therefore, it should not be kept in a damp place.
o Chemical reaction – CaO + H20 ----slaking
---- Ca (OH)2 + heat.
o The theoretical amount of water required for lime slaking is about 32%, but in practice,
the amount of water required is about 2 to 3 times more because of lime composition,
degree of burning, method of slaking & evaporation of water.
o A thin pourable suspension of slaked lime in water is known as ‘Milk of lime’.
Slaking:
o Process in which, when water is added to quick lime, a chemical reaction takes place &
the quick lime cracks, swells & falls into a powder which is the Calcium hydrate known
as ‘Hydrated lime’.
Sources of lime
Lime is not usually available in nature in free state.
It is produced by burning one of the following materials;
o Lime stones from the stone hills
o Boulders of lime stones from the beds of old rivers
o Kankar (impure limestone) found below the ground &
o Shells of sea animals.
Constituents of limestone
The properties of lime depend on the composition of the limestone from which it is produced.
The constituents of lime stones are as follows;
Clay:
o It is responsible for producing hydraulicity in lime.
o If excess it arrests slaking & if less, it retards slaking.
o 8% to 30% is desirable for making a good lime. Clay also makes lime insoluble in water.
2
3. LIME
Soluble Silica:
o It is essential to develop hydraulicity in lime.
o The silicates of calcium, magnesium & aluminum are responsible for hydraulicity.
o They are inert or inactive at low temperatures & become active & combine with lime at
high temperatures.
Magnesium Carbonate:
o This constituent allows lime to slake & set slowly, but imparts more strength.
o 30% of carbonate of magnesia renders hydraulicity to lime, even in the absence of clay.
Alkalies & Metallic oxides:
o These when present about 5% or so, develop hydraulicity.
Sulphates:
o Its presence in small quantities, accelerates the process of setting & reduces slaking
action.
Iron:
o If present in small quantity, it develops a complex silicate at high temperature, but
excess is objectionable.
Pyrites:
o Undesirable to have pyrites in lime stones. Such lime stones should be rejected.
Classification of lime
Lime obtained by calcinations of limestone is classified as;
o Fat lime
o Hydraulic lime
o Poor lime
Fat lime
This lime is also known as High Calcium lime, Pure lime, Rich lime or White lime.
It is popularly known as Fat lime.
3
4. LIME
It slakes vigorously & its volume increases about 2 to 2 ½ times the volume of quick lime.
It is prepared by calcining pure lime composed of 95% of calcium oxide.
Impurities in such limestone are less than 5%.
Properties
Hardens very slowly
High degree of plasticity
Soluble in water
Colour is perfectly white
Sets slowly in presence of air, and
Slakes vigorously.
Uses
White washing & plastering walls
With sand, it forms lime mortar which is used for brickwork & stonework.
With surkhi, it forms lime mortar used for thick masonry walls, foundations, etc.
(surkhi: powder obtained by grinding of burnt brick).
Hydraulic lime
This lime is also known as ‘Water lime’ as it sets under water.
It contains clay & some amount of ferrous oxide & depending upon the percentage of clay,
hydraulic lime is divided as;
o Feebly hydraulic lime
o Moderately hydraulic lime
o Eminently hydraulic lime
Properties
Increase in percentage of clay makes slaking difficult & increases the hydraulic property.
With 30% of clay, hydraulic lime resembles natural cement.
Can set underwater & in thick walls with no free circulation of air.
4
5. LIME
Colour is not perfect white.
Forms a thin paste with water & does not dissolve in it.
Uses
Used for plaster works
Hydraulic lime is ground to a fine powder & then mixed with sand & kept aside for 1 week.
It is grounded again & then used for plastering work.
Poor lime
It is also known as ‘Impure lime’ or ‘Lean lime’.
Properties
Contains more than 30% of clay & slakes very slowly.
Forms a thin paste with water but does not dissolve in it.
Sets or hardens very slowly & has poor binding properties.
Colour is muddy white.
Uses
It makes a very poor mortar, that can be used for inferior type of work or places where good
lime is not available.
Building lime classification
Class – A
o It is eminently hydraulic lime used for structural purposes & is supplied in the hydrated
form only.
Class – B
o It is the semi – hydraulic lime used for masonry work & is supplied as ‘Quick lime’ or as
‘Hydrated lime’.
Class – C
o It is fat lime used for plastering, white washing & supplied in hydrated or quick form.
Class – D
o It is dolomitic lime used similar as class – C lime.
5
6. LIME
Class – E
o It is kankar lime used for masonry works & supplied as hydrated lime.
Class –F
o It is siliceous dolomitic lime used for plastering & supplied as quick & hydrated lime.
Manufacture of lime
3 distinct operations are involved in the manufacture of lime;
o Collection of limestone
o Calcinations of limestone
o Slaking of limestone.
Collection of limestone
The lime stones with 5% impurities are collected at site of work.
It is desirable to use pure carbonate of lime in the manufacturing process of fat lime.
Calcination of limestone
The calcination’s or burning of lime stones can be achieved either in kilns or clamps.
Clamps are temporary structures whereas Kilns are permanent structures that may be
intermittent type or continuous type.
The fuel required for calcinations consist of charcoal, coal, firewood or coal ashes & initial firing
is achieved with few chips of dry wood or cow-dung cakes.
Clamps
The ground is leveled & cleaned.
The lime stones & fuel (incase of wood) are placed in alternate layers, whereas, if fuel (is coal or
charcoal), it is mixed with lime stones & placed in a heap form.
The sloping sides are covered with mud plaster to preserve heat as much as possible.
It is then fires from bottom & a small opening is provided at top for draught.
When the blue flame at top disappears, it indicates the completion of the process.
The clamp is then allowed to cool down & pieces of quick lime are handpicked.
6
7. LIME
It is adopted to manufacture lime on a small scale.
Disadvantages
Uneconomical to manufacture lime on a large scale.
Loss of heat is considerable as mud plaster cracks by heat inside & allows heat to escape.
Quality of lime produced is not good,
Quality of fuel required is more.
Intermittent Kilns
These are of various patterns & sizes & shapes depending on the practice.
2 important types are
o Intermittent Flame Kiln &
o Intermittent Flare Kiln.
Intermittent Flame Kiln
Alternate layers of limestone & fuel are arranged in kiln.
Horizontal & vertical flues are suitably formed & top of kiln is covered with unburnt material.
The kiln is ignited from the bottom & lime stones are allowed to burn for 3 days or so.
The kiln is then cooled & unloaded.
The process is the repeated.
Intermittent Flare Kiln
In this type, a rough arch of selected big pieces of lime stones are formed & smaller pieces of
lime stones are packed over this arch.
The fuel is placed below the arch & thus is not allowed to come into contact with limestone.
When fuel is ignited, only the flame comes into contact with limestone.
When the lime stones are burnt, the kiln is cooled & unloaded.
The process is then repeated.
This type of kiln is easy to manage & produces lime of better quality as lime stones are not
mixed with fuel & the finished product does not contain ashes.
7
8. LIME
Continuous Kiln
There are various types, sizes of such kilns depending on practice in the locality.
The 2 important types of Continuous Kilns are;
o Continuous Flame Kiln
o Continuous Flare Kiln
Continuous Flame Kiln
It is in the form of a cylinder with diameters of 1.8m, 2.3m & 1.4m of top, middle & bottom
portion resp.
Widening of middle portion is done to accommodate hot gases of combustion.
The mixture of lime stones & fuel are fed from the top & the bottom is covered by grating.
The Kiln is partially above the ground & partly below ground.
A loading platform is provided at the top.
The inner surface of the kiln is covered with fire-brick lining & to facilitate cleaning of the grating,
a rake hole is provided.
After burning, the lime is collected sat the bottom & is removed through access shaft.
As the level of material inside the kiln falls, the required quantity of mixture of limestone & fuel is
fed from top.
A roof may be provided at top to protect the kiln.
Continuous Flare Kin
This kiln consists of 2 sections – upper & lower.
The upper section serves as storage of limestone & the lower portion is provided with fire-brick
lining.
A small quantity of fuel is mixed with limestone & ignited.
Fuel is then fed through shafts around the upper & lower sections of the kiln.
Lime stones are fed from the top & the calcined material removal is done through a grating
placed at the bottom of kiln.
A roof is provided at top to protect the kiln.
8
9. LIME
There is considerable saving of time & fuel in this kiln, as the fuel does not come in contact with
lime stones.
Initial cost is high & thus these are adopted to manufacture lime on a large scale.
Facts to be remembered during the process
Dark red colour indicates completion of burning process & presence of Co2.
Burnt limestone should be withdrawn from kiln as soon as Co2 is driven off & colour changes to
a brilliant white.
Over burning or under burning should be avoided during burning of stones. Ideal temperature is
800°C & for several hours.
Heating should be gradual as sudden heating results in blowing of stones to pieces.
Imperfectly calcined lime does not slake with water & is referred to as ‘Dead-burnt’ lime.
Lime stones should be broken to suitable sizes before they are burnt.
Fat lime stones – 200mm to 250mm
Hydraulic lime stones – 75mm to 100mm.
Quantity of fuel for burning should be carefully proportional.
Slaking of burnt lime
The objects of slaking are;
o To ensure soundness (i.e.) bring about volumetric stability.
o To ensure plasticity
The common methods employed for slaking are;
o Air slaking
o Basket slaking
o Platform slaking
o Tank slaking
Air Slaking
9
10. LIME
Quick lime obtained is exposed to atmosphere for slaking
This is known as ‘Natural slaking’ or ‘Air slaking’ & is a very slow process.
Other 2 methods of slaking are;
Slaking to paste
In this method, quick lime is spread evenly of 150mm depth in a wooden or masonry basin.
Water in sufficient quantity is then poured over the layer till the quick lime submerges.
Excess water retards slaking & less water results in unsatisfactory slaking.
The basin is covered with wooden planks to preserve heat & ensure proper slaking.
Stirring is not required & slaking is completed in 10 minutes.
Slaking to powder
In this method, the quick lime is slaked to powder form by 2 ways;
I method: (Basket slaking)
Quick lime is broken to pieces of sizes 50mm.
It is then immersed in water for a considerable time in a basket.
The basket with lime is then removed from water & the lime pieces are thrown on a wooden or
masonry platform in a heap form.
Quick lime crumbles & falls as powder.
II method: (Platform slaking)
Quick lime is spread in layer of 150mm depth on a wooden or masonry platform.
Water is sprinkled above this layer from a water can or vessel with perforated nozzle.
Quick lime thus swells & crumbles into powder from.
This method is generally adopted to slake quick lime obtained from the shells.
Tank slaking
2 brick-lined tanks are constructed, one generally at the ground level 45cm deep & the other
tank is made adjacent to the first one, but at a lower level (below ground) usually 60cm to 75cm
deep.
The first tank (at ground level) is filled half with water & sufficient quicklime is added to fill the
tank to half the level of water.
10
11. LIME
It may be noted that lime should always be added to water & not water to lime.
The lime is then stirred with no part of lime to be exposed above water.
As lime slakes, the temperature increases & water begins to boil. Thus additions of lime & water
are made in small quantities with constant stirring so as to maintain the required temperature
(85°C - 98°C).
The operation is continued until the required quantity of lime or whole of lime has been slaked.
The lime suspension (milk of lime) in the state of suspension is then allowed to pass through a
sieve & flow into the second tank at lower level.
The particles of lime settle down & water gets partly absorbed, partly evaporated & remaining
surplus water is removed.
The putty, prior to use, is allowed to mature in the tank for 2 to 3 days & by doing so, the
complete slaking is ensured & the workability of the putty improves.
Manufacture of Natural Hydraulic Lime
3 distinct operations are involved in the manufacture of natural hydraulic lime.
o Collection of kankar
o Calcinations of kankar, and
o Slaking & grinding of burnt lime.
Collection of Kankar
Kankar is an impure limestone & it is used for manufacturing natural hydraulic lime.
It is available in 2 forms, nodular & blocks.
Nodules are found either on surface of ground or slightly below ground level.
They are easy to collect & are superior material for manufacturing natural hydraulic lime,
because
It can withstand heat & rain without disintegration
It contains higher % of clay & thus better hydraulic properties.
The blocks of kankar are found form the underground strata below or near river banks or
streams.
Thicknesses of blocks are usually 50mm to 300mm.
Nodules or blocks of kankar are quarried with pick-axes or crowbars.
11
12. LIME
It is the cleaned of mud or earth & converted to suitable sizes.
Calcinations of Kankar (burning)
Calcinations of kankar to bright red heat are done either in clamps or kilns as manufacture of fat
lime.
Slaking & Grinding of burnt lime
The slaking of hydraulic lime occurs very slowly.
Thus quick lime is ground dry before water is added for slaking.
Grinding of quick lime can be done;
o By hand with the help of wooden beaters, or
o By mills working with bullocks or steam power, or
o By special machines
Differences between slaking of fat lime & hydraulic lime
Fat Lime Hydraulic Lime
Required quantity of water for slaking is
added at time
Required quantity of water for slaking is
gradually added through slaking
1 part of Fat lime when slaked is
converted into 1 ½ parts in paste form
& 2 parts in powder form
1 part of Hydraulic lime when slaked is
converted into 1 part in paste form & 1
½ parts in powder form.
Quantity of water required for slaking is
more
Quantity of water for slaking is less
Time taken for slaking is about 3 to 4
hours.
Time taken for slaking is about 12 to 48
hours.
Manufacture of Artificial Hydraulic Lime
Artificial hydraulic lime can be prepared when natural raw material is not suitable for the
manufacture of hydraulic lime.
Fat lime may be converted into hydraulic lime by addition of clay in required proportion.
2 methods of preparing artificial hydraulic lime are;
o Conversion of soft limestone
12
13. LIME
o Conversion of hard limestone
Conversion of Soft Limestone
Limestone of soft quality, such as chalk, is ground & converted into powder form.
It is then mixed with required proportion of clay & burnt in a kiln & slaking is carried out as in the
manufacture of natural hydraulic lime.
Conversion of Hard Limestone
Limestone of hard quality is first burnt & slaked.
To this slaked lime, required portion of clay is added.
This mixture is converted into balls of suitable sizes & after drying, these balls are burnt in kiln.
Slaking is then done as in the manufacture of natural hydraulic lime.
As this lime is produced after burning twice in kiln, it is also known as ‘Twice-kilned lime’.
Precautions to be taken in handling lime
Following precautions are to be taken while handling lime to avoid accidents;
Contact with water: quick lime should not be allowed to come in contact with water before
slaking.
Facilities for workers:
o Workers should be provided with googols & respirators as lime dust causes irritation.
o They should also be provided with rubber gloves, gum boots & skin protective cream as
lime causes skin burns, esp. when skin is moist.
Fire hazard: As quick lime gives out immense heat while slaking, suitable measures should be
taken for any fire hazard.
Instructions to workers:
o Workers handling lime – wash exposed parts of their body with abundant fresh water.
o Workers handling milk of lime which is hot – oil their skin daily to avoid burns.
Uses of lime: used as;
Chemical raw material in the purification of water & for sewage treatment.
13
14. LIME
Flux in the metallurgical industry
Matrix for concrete & mortar.
Refractory material for lining open-hearth furnaces.
Production of glass
Making mortar for masonry work
Plastering of walls & ceilings
Production of artificial stone, lime – sand brick, foam – silicate products, etc.
Soil stabilization & improving soil for agricultural purposes.
White washing & as a base coat for distemper.
When mixed with Portland cement, can be used in place with costly cement mortar.
Tests for lime stones
Lime stones are tested to determine the quality of lime by detailed chemical tests in a
laboratory.
The following practical test are made for general information;
Physical properties
Heat test
Acid test
Ball test
Visual inspection
Soundness test
Workability test
Transverse strength test
Compressive strength test
Impurity test
Plasticity test
14
15. LIME
Physical properties
Pure limestone is indicated by white colour
Hydraulic limestone id indicated by bluish grey, brown or some dark colour, tastes clayey &
gives out earthy smell.
Presence of lumps gives an indication of quick lime or un-burnt limestone.
Heat test
A piece of dry limestone is weighed & heated in an open fire for a few hours & a sample is
weighed again.
The loss of weight indicates the amount of calcium carbonate in limestone is worked out.
Acid Test
A teaspoon of powdered lime is taken in a test tube & dilute hydrochloric acid is poured in it,
stirred & kept standing with its contents for 24 hours.
If there is vigorous effervescence & less residue formation, calcium carbonate is high –
indicates pure limestone.
If there is less effervescence & more residue formation, calcium carbonate is less – indicates
impure or hydraulic limestone.
If a thick gel is formed – indicates class – A of lime
If gel is not thick & tends to flow – indicates class – B of lime.
If no gel is formed – indicated class – C of lime.
Ball Test
Stiff lime balls of about 40mm size are made by adding enough water & left undisturbed for 6
hours.
The balls are then placed in a basin of water.
If there is slow expansion & disintegration within minutes after placing in water – it indicates
class – C lime
If there is little or no expansion & numerous cracks – it indicates class – B lime.
Visual inspection
A sample of lime is examined for its colour & lumps.
o White colour – fat or pure lime.
15
16. LIME
o Lumps of lime – quick lime or un-burnt lime.
Chemical Analysis
The analysis determines the cementation & hydraulic properties of lime.
Cementation value of lime = 2.8A+1.1B+0.7C
D + 14 E
Where, A = silica oxide content (SiO2)
B = aluminium oxide content (Al2o3)
C = ferric oxide content (Fe2o3)
D = calcium oxide content (CaO)
E = magnesium oxide content (MgO)
Soundness test
The test is done to find the quality, (i.e.) the unsoundness or disintegration property of lime
using the Le-chatelier apparatus.
To test hydrated lime;
Cement, hydrated lime & sand (1:3:12) are mixed in the cylinder of the Le-chatelier apparatus &
is covered with a glass sheet & left for an hour.
The distance between the indicator pointers is measured.
The apparatus is then kept in damp air for 48 hours & is then subjected to steam for 3 hours.
The sample is cooled to room temperature & the distance between the pointers is measured
again.
The difference in two measurements should not be more than 10mm.
To determine the soundness of fat lime;
Pats are prepared by mixing 70g of hydrated lime, 10g of POP & 70ml of water.
The pats are subjected to steam & then tested for disintegration, popping ^ piping & if any of
these occur, the lime is considered to be unsound.
This test is also known as ‘Popping & Piping test’.
Workability test
16
17. LIME
A handful of mortar is thrown on the surface on which it is to be used & the area covered by the
mortar & its quantity is recorded along with its sticking quality.
This data indicates the workability (if sticks well – workability is good) of the lime mortar & is a
very crude field test performed with actual mortar.
Transverse Strength test
25 x 25 x 100mm specimens are cured for 28 days at 90% HUMIDITY.
They are immersed in water for 30 minutes, taken out & placed on two parallel rollers, 80mm
apart & load is applied uniformly starting from 0 increasing at a rate of 150 N/minute through a
3rd
roller of same size, at a midway point between the two, till the specimen breaks.
Modulus of rupture of test specimen, m = 3Ws = 0.0768w
2 bd2
Where, m = modulus of rupture of the specimen in N/mm2
w = breaking load in N
s = spacing between the rollers in mm
b, d = the width & depth (each 25mm) of the specimen in mm.
Minimum value should be 1.05 N/mm2
for class – A lime, and
0.7 N/mm2
for class – B lime.
Compressive Strength test
12 cubes of 50mm size are made from standard lime –sand mortar & are kept undisturbed for
72 hours at room temperature (27˚C ± 2˚C)
They are then taken out of the mould & kept in open air for 4 days.
6 of the 12 cubes are cured for 7 days & tested in a compressive testing machine & the balance
6 cubes are cured for 21 days & tested.
The load is steadily & uniformly applied, from 0 increasing at the rate of 150 N/minute & the
crushing load is divided by the area of the cube denotes the compressive strength of mortar.
Impurity test
A known weight of lime is mixed with water in a beaker & the solution is decanted.
The residue is dried well in hot sun for 8 hours & then weighed.
If residue is less than 10% - lime is good
17
18. LIME
10% - 20% - lime is fair
above 20% - lime is poor
Plasticity test
The lime is mixed with water to a thick paste & left overnight.
It is then spread on a blotting paper with a knife to test its plasticity.
Good lime is plastic in nature.
Lime putty
More popularly known as Calcium hydroxide, it is used as a base material for a number of
different applications in building construction.
It is prepared by mixing lime chalk with required quantity of water & heated to a high
temperature that helps the mixture to thicken.
Once the desired consistency is reached, lime putty is allowed to settle & mature over several
methods.
In order to keep the product from drying out, a thin layer of water is applied over the top level of
the putty & the container is sealed.
It can be used in a thick composition for plastering & grouts & also as the base for a plastering
technique.
Storing lime
Lime reacts to the moisture present in the atmosphere & that from the ground.
Hence, it should be stored with utmost care & so following precautions should be followed
properly;
o Should be stored in properly insulated (against moisture) container & off the ground.
o When delivered as hydrated lime – kept dry, stored under cover & off the ground.
o When delivered as quick lime – should be used as soon as possible positively within a
week.
18
19. LIME
o Lime putty stored without any deterioration for many weeks & actually improves by
keeping. (Maximum storage – 14 days).
o (Deterioration is caused due to the action of the atmosphere moisture on un-slaked
lime).
o In case of semi-hydraulic lime – putty must not be stored for more than 3 days of its
preparation.
o In case of hydrated eminently hydraulic lime – coarse stuff & putty should be used within
12 hours.
19