Peruvian Migration

It has been twenty years since the migratory pattern in Chile started to change. Meanwhile, many migrants have been constructing multiple trajectories in the country. The way in which these trajectories have been constructed is influenced by economic, political and cultural factors that migrants face in both the host society and the society of origin. At the same time, these trajectories show different processes of inclusion in these societies. The aim of this paper is to explore how these processes are experienced and constructed by migrant women in Chile. Based on their life stories, we suggest that the processes of inclusion tend to be marked by a dimension that acquires a greater role and contributes to understand their experiences of migration. Work, family and social networks frame such diverse trajectories, which will be analyzed in this paper.

Research on the risks of under- or unemployment faced by highly qualified non-EU immigrants to Switzerland has focused on the absence of recognition of their foreign qualifications as a major source of vulnerability in the host country. The aim of this paper is to study the employment trajectories of a specific group of migrants who have graduated from a Swiss higher education (HE) institution.
Drawing on a life-course perspective, the paper is based on sixteen biographical interviews with a diverse group of highly skilled Peruvian men and women living in Switzerland, after having graduated from a Swiss HE institution. We identify three ideal-type trajectories of migrant graduates with a Swiss HE qualification, based on their field of study, their route of access to formal residential status (essential employment clause / bi-national marriage) and the domestic division of labor and care responsibilities within their households.
We show that obtaining a Swiss HE qualification is rarely enough to guarantee non-European graduates access to a stable job that is commensurate to their qualifications. The ability of these Swiss-trained migrants to translate their educational credentials into favorable professional outcomes is highly dependent on family formation patterns and gender arrangements. Some routes to formal residential rights in Switzerland after graduation would seem to cancel out the advantages associated with having a Swiss qualification and lead to long-term precarious employment experiences, especially for female graduates from the humanities and social sciences who receive residential qualifications through marriage to a Swiss or EU national, rather than on the basis of their own contribution to the Swiss labor market.

Español
Objetivo: analizar la incorporación laboral de los migrantes peruanos en la ciudad de Córdoba, Argentina, en el periodo 2001-2010. Métodos: Se realiza análisis estadístico descriptivo en la primera fase y análisis de correspondencias múltiples en la segunda fase (ACM), ambos en perspectiva comparada con la población nativa. Resultados: los hombres aumentan la participación en la industria, tanto los nativos como los migrantes. Sin embargo, en mayor magnitud para los hombres peruanos. Las mujeres nativas ven poco alterada su estructura ocupacional en el periodo. Para las mujeres nacidas en Perú el movimiento hacia el sector de la industria también se aprecia. Sin embargo, el rasgo más destacable para este grupo es la desconcentración de la categoría más frecuente: el trabajo doméstico, en un proceso que va en dirección a diversificar el espectro de ocupaciones. Conclusiones: en relación a los migrantes peruanos, el clivaje de género presenta estabilidad como un mecanismo que explica las inserciones diferenciales, donde las mujeres persisten en ocupaciones específicas en el periodo considerado. Esto apoya la hipótesis de una incorporación segmentada para las mujeres. Sin embargo, también se observa una variación, ya que aunque la categoría más frecuente sea el trabajo doméstico en ambos momentos censales, la menor proporción de ellas allí empleadas en el 2010, indica que otras ocupaciones adquieren relevancia. En el caso de los hombres el principal rasgo es el trasvase hacia la industria.

English
Objective: to analyze the labor incorporation of Peruvian migrants in the city of Córdoba, Argentina, in the period 2001-2010. Methods: We use descriptive statistical analysis in the first step and analysis of multiple correspondences in the second step (MCA), both in comparative perspective with the native population. Results: men increase participation in the industry, both natives and migrants. However, the magnitude is greater for Peruvian men. For native women, the change in the occupational structure is small. For women born in Peru the movement towards the industry sector is also appreciated. However, the most remarkable feature for this group is the scattering of the most frequent category: domestic work, in a process that goes in the direction of diversifying the spectrum of occupations. Conclusions: in relation to Peruvian migrants, gender cleavage presents stability as a mechanism that explains differential incorporation, where women persist in specific occupations in the period considered. This supports the hypothesis of a segmented incorporation for women. However, there is also a variation, since although the most frequent category is domestic work in both census periods, the lower proportion of them employed there in 2010 indicates that other occupations acquire relevance. In the case of men, the main feature is the transfer to industry.

Resumen: este artículo examina las prácticas utilizadas por los migrantes peruanos para formar sus propias organizaciones en Paterson, Nueva Jersey, Estados Unidos. Con el objetivo de recuperar la experiencia comunitaria de estos migrantes, se utilizó una metodología cualitativa que incluyó el análisis de fuentes escritas obtenidas en los archivos del consulado peruano de Nueva Jersey y en bibliotecas del área. Asimismo, se examinaron historias orales de migrantes peruanos e información recabada a través del material periodístico brindado por miembros de la comunidad. La primera sección del artículo revela que los migrantes peruanos, al no contar con instituciones previamente establecidas ni asistencia del gobierno local, utilizaron la informalidad y otras prácticas alternativas de organización social para crear sus propias asociaciones. Estos migrantes, además, hicieron uso de la identidad nacional, las redes sociales y las normas andinas de asistencia colectiva para organizarse en el nuevo contexto. La segunda sección muestra que los empresarios peruanos cumplieron un rol central para que estas iniciativas de organización colectiva se concretaran y formalizaran. Estos comerciantes financiaron económicamente y lideraron varias iniciativas colectivas de organización. Finalmente, se evidencia que muchos comerciantes y líderes comunitarios se valieron del clientelismo para adquirir poder económico y político, lo cual les ha servido para continuar formando asociaciones y organizando eventos públicos para visibilizar a la comunidad. Se concluye que, en las diferentes oleadas migratorias, los peruanos han mostrado una predisposición al uso de la informalidad como recurso para organizarse colectivamente en el país receptor. Este artículo contribuye a los estudios de comunidades latinas en los Estados Unidos ofreciendo una perspectiva analítica de las dinámicas socioeconómicas que grupos de migrantes más recientes transfieren del país de origen para facilitar su integración al nuevo contexto.

Palabras clave: informalidad laboral, migración peruana, Perú, peruanos en Estados Unidos, redes sociales.

Developing Informality and Alternative Practices in the Peruvian Community of Paterson, New Jersey

Abstract: This article examines the practices adopted by Peruvian migrants to form their own organizations in Paterson, New Jersey, United States. To recover the communal experience of these migrants, we employed a qualitative methodology that included the analysis of written sources obtained from the archives of the Peruvian consulate in New Jersey and libraries in the area. We also reviewed oral histories of Peruvian migrants and information gathered through journalistic material provided by members of the community. The first section of the article reveals that Peruvian migrants, lacking previously established institutions and local government assistance, used informality and other alternative practices of social organization to create their own associations. These migrants also made use of national identity, social networks and Andean norms of collective assistance to organize themselves into their new context. The second section shows that Peruvian businessmen played a central role in bringing these collective organizing initiatives to fruition and formalizing them. These traders financed and led several collective organization initiatives. Finally, we find that many merchants and community leaders used clientelism to acquire economic and political power, which has helped them to continue forming associations and organizing public events to make the community more prominent. We conclude that, in the different waves of migration, Peruvians have shown a predisposition to use informality as a resource to organize themselves collectively in the receiving country. This article contributes to studies concerning Latino communities in the United States by offering an analytical perspective on the socioeconomic dynamics that more recent migrant groups transfer from their country of origin in order to adapt to the new context.

Keywords: Labor informality, Peru, Peruvian migration, Peruvians in the United States, social networks.

Desenvolvimento da informalidade e de práticas alternativas na comunidade peruana de Paterson, Nova Jersey

Resumo: neste artigo, são examinadas as práticas utilizadas pelos migrantes peruanos para formar suas organizações em Paterson, Nova Jersey, Estados Unidos. Com o objetivo de recuperar a experiência comunitária desses migrantes, foi utilizada uma metodologia qualitativa que incluiu a análise de fontes escritas obtidas nos arquivos do consulado peruano de Nova Jersey e em bibliotecas da área. Além disso, são analisadas histórias orais de migrantes peruanos e informações coletadas por meio do material jornalístico oferecido por membros da comunidade. Na primeira seção do artigo, revela-se que os migrantes peruanos, ao não contarem com instituições previamente estabelecidas nem assistência do governo local, utilizaram a informalidade e outras práticas alternativas de organização social para criar suas associações. Esses migrantes, ainda, fizeram uso da identidade nacional, das redes sociais e das leis andinas de assistência coletiva para se organizarem no novo contexto. A segunda seção mostra que os empresários peruanos cumpriram um papel central para que essas iniciativas de organização coletiva se concretizassem e formalizassem. Esses comerciantes financiaram economicamente e lideraram várias iniciativas coletivas de organização. Por último, é evidenciado que muitos comerciantes e líderes comunitários se aproveitaram do clientelismo para adquirir poder econômico e político, o que lhes serviu para continuarem formando associações e organizando eventos públicos para visibilizar a comunidade. Conclui-se que, nas diferentes ondas migratórias, os peruanos mostraram uma predisposição ao uso da informalidade como recurso de organização coletiva no país receptor. Este artigo contribui para os estudos de comunidades latinas nos Estados Unidos, oferecendo uma perspectiva analítica das dinâmicas socioeconômicas que grupos de migrantes mais recentes transferem do país de origem para facilitar sua integração ao novo contexto.

Palavras-chave: informalidade no trabalho, migração peruana, Peru, peruanos nos Estados Unidos, redes sociais.

Resumen
En los últimos años, la llegada de inmigrantes peruanas como usuarias de atención materno-infantil al Servicio de Salud Metropolitano Central (SSMC) ha supuesto numerosos desafíos tanto para ellas como para la población nacional. El objetivo de esta investigación es conocer las barreras de acceso a una atención de calidad que surgen para estas usuarias en las diversas interacciones entre ellas y los funcionarios del sistema de atención materno-infantil, en dos consultorios dependientes del SSMC. Utilizando un enfoque cualitativo, se realizaron entrevistas semiestructuradas a trece inmigrantes peruanas usuarias de atención materno-infantil y trece funcionarios. Se rescata como principal resultado de la investigación el carácter emergente de las barreras, en tanto producto social efecto de las interacciones de carácter mixto entre los actores, relaciones que se nutren y articulan con otros contenidos existentes en la sociedad, como la construcción y representación del Otro y las expectativas mutuas que de allí se derivan. En este modelo relacional, los inmigrantes peruanos no se presentaron como un alter culturalmente muy distante en cuanto a sus prácticas médicas, por lo que se propone redefinir las actuales orientaciones hacia un modelo de atención que en lugar de relevar diferencias no detectadas, considere las particularidades del sujeto migrado.



Abstract
In the last years, the arrival of Peruvian immigrants as users of mother and child health care units at the Metropolitan Health Service Central has supposed many challenges for them and the national population. The aim of this investigation is to know about the barriers to a quality health service access for these users. These barriers arise from the interactions between them and the employees at mother and child health unit, in two medical centers dependent on the Metropolitan Health Service Central. Using a qualitative approach, semi structured interviews have been applied to thirteen Peruvian immigrants and thirteen employees. Main results refer to the emerging nature of these barriers as a social product of the mixed contacts between different actors, relations that are nourished and articulated with other existing contents in society, as the construction and representation of the Other, and mutual expectations. In this relational model, Peruvian immigrants didn't appear as a culturally distant group as far as medical practices are concerned; because of that we propose to re-define the current orientations towards a service model that instead of focusing on non detected differences, takes the particularities of the migrated subject into consideration.