Iron Age Metallurgy

The finds from two Villanovan cemeteries located near Castel San Pietro Terme (Bologna) and Pontesanto (Imola), in the region Emilia Romagna (Italy) have been recently studied and analysed in the frame of different projects. In particular two classes of objects-fibulae and weapons-were examined and on them several kinds of analyses (XRF, AAS, SEM/EDS) were performed. They show interesting elements for the reconstruction of the metallurgical tradition of the Iron Age culture in the sites in the SouthEastern area of the Po Plain. The items in both groups are particularly suitable for the evaluation of the skills of the artisans who produced them and for the determination of the copper-based alloys in use in this area and period for the production of decorative objects of personal use and for different kinds of weapons. This paper discusses the results of the analyses and the metallurgical characteristics of the objects.

Sultan Süleyman’ın Macaristan’da vefat ettiği yerde, 1566’da kuşatılan Zigetvar kalesi civarında, 16. yüzyıl Osmanlı topçularına ilişkin, eski taktik yöntemlere işaret eden arkeolojik bulgular ve pek çok olgu ortaya çıktı. Bunlar arasında namlusu olmayan bir top ve pek çok top mermisi de bulunuyor. Bunların birlikte incelenmesi, kuşatmaya ilişkin bugüne kadar çözülememiş şu çelişkiyi de çözmemize yardım edebilir: Dünyanın o zamanki en hazırlıklı ordusuna sahip olan ve taarruz eden Osmanlılar, çadırlarını neden ateş hattına kurdular? Savunmanın atış menzilini yanlış hesaplayarak vahim bir komuta hatası mı yaptılar? Arkeolojik bulguların arkeometalürjik incelemelerine dayanarak dönemin kaynakları ve en yeni arkeolojik gözlemler yardımıyla öncelikle bu temel soruna cevap bulmaya çalışıyoruz. Bu sorunun açıklığa kavuşturulması, o dönemin savaş meydanı ve kuşatma karargahının tanınmasına ve Sultan Süleyman ve Zirinyi’nin kısmi definlerinin yapıldığı yerin belirlenmesine de büyük oranda katkıda bulunacaktır. Zigetvar’daki 16. yüzyıla ait bir topun çelik döküm hammaddesi teknoloji tarihi bakımından da ilginç sorular ortaya atmaktadır. Çünkü bugünkü bilgilerimize göre 19. yüzyılın ikinci yarısına kadar Avrupa’da bu tür silahlar üretilmiyordu.
Arkeometalürjik incelemeler ve kaynakların incelenmesi sırasında, savunma hattındakilerin, savaş sırasında daha büyük bir menziline sahip top ya da kuşatma yapanlar için süpriz olabilecek teknik bir yenilik veya silah kullandıklarına dair herhangi bir veri bulamadık. Buna ek olarak saha gözlemlerine dayanarak Temetői Dűlő’de gözlemlenen siper çukuru kalıntısı ve Sultan’ın, Turbék şapelinin etrafında var olduğu düşünülen otağının kaleye olan uzaklığı ve konumu gösteriyor ki, Sultan’ın askerlerinin, kaleyi savunanların atış menzilinin dışında kalan dağ yamacında konuşlanması için bir sürü yer bulunuyordu. Fakat arazi şartları nedeniyle başkumandanın, orduyu geniş bir alana yayılan bataklık bölgenin uzaktaki bir kıyısına mı yerleştireceği yoksa kısmen atış menzili içinde kalmasına rağmen kaleye yakın olan adacıkları kullanarak kuşatma için gerekli yürüyüş yolunu kısaltıp kısaltmayacağı konusunda karar vermesi gerekiyordu. Büyük bir tecrübeye sahip olan Sadrazam Sokullu, bataklıktaki arazi koşulları nedeniyle, kısmen atış menzilinin içinde kalan adacıklarda konuşlanmaya karar verir ve böylece çadırların her biri dikkatlice, topların atış menzilinin dışında kurulur. Arkeometalürjik incelemelerin sonuçları, Osmanlı tarafında görülen teknolojik üstünlük yanında, Zigetvar’ın 1566’daki kuşatmasının taktik açıdan iyi organize edilmiş olduğuna ve tutarlı bir şekilde idare edildiğine işaret eder. Yani vahim bir hata, düşman toplarının, topçularının uzaklığının yanlış hesaplanması diye bir şey söz konusu değildir.

Straight Pins have been repeatedly among the findings of the metal objects of the settlements, religious sites and cemeteries of the Iron Age of Iran. These artifacts have often been referred to as "Pins" in some of the available sources. In other cases, they have simply been titled as: Garment Pins, hairpins, symbolic and votive objects, defense instruments and shrouds pins without making any distinctions and/or scientific discussions. In this article, we tried to study the various functions of these artifacts by using archaeological, ethno-archeological and historical studies. Based on the results, the studs, regarding their shape and dimension, as well as the place of discovery, had different uses such as: Garment Pin, hair pin, decoration, defensive, symbolic, votive, magic, and ritual as well as complementary and multiple applications. Also one of the functions that has been mentioned earlier in this article is its use as a tool to Ward off the ghosts and evil forces, as well as vile and harassing animals, which is still true for traditional societies and was the case with Zoroastrians from the Ancient and contemporary eras.

S. Menic (2016): Latènezeitliche Schmieden im Siegerland. Archäologie in Westfalen-Lippe 2015, 209-212.

(below you find a link to Stephanie's book on this subject on here academia site)

As part of a research project on the La Tène-period iron economy in the Siegerland region, which has been funded by the DFG (German Research Foundation) since 2007, a thesis has now been completed on the reconstruction of the chaîne opératoire and on the econometrics of the various steps in the process. A partial result of the study pertaining to La Tène-period forges in the Siegerland region is presented here. By re-evaluating and studying sites excavated in the past, it was possible, among other things, to find evidence of two different types of forge. This shows that there were differences in the individual steps not just with regard to preparation and smelting but also concerning the tasks and activities of a smith.

Two features at the excavation ‘Ronse Pont West’, dated between ca. 240-175 calBC, clearly contain the debris of a blacksmith workshop. It is still uncertain whether the features themselves are part of the actual forge or not. Although there is no in situ burning of the soil, several arguments point out that the forging area was close by and the pits were probably part of the infrastructure of the blacksmith.
Through a detailed macroscopic examination of the iron slags and the other debris, the aim of this paper is to determine the nature of the slags and the nature of the features.

Anejos de AEspA XXXV, 2005, pág. 1231 BRONCE Y TRABAJO DEL BRONCE EN EL POBLADO ORIENTALIZANTE DE 'EL PALOMAR' (OLIVA DE MÉRIDA, BADAJOZ)1 Salvador ROVIRA, Ignacio MONTERO José ORTEGA y Javier nMÉNEZ ÁVILA Resumen Se presentan los ...

This paper outlines the hypothesis for my PhD thesis. The hypothesis is that during the period of c. 800-450 BC (Hallstatt C-D3), a major factor in the development of the societies that can be observed during this time in Central Europe was the development of an indigenous economic system based primarily, but not exclusively, on iron and salt in the regions of Slovenia and Salzkammergut, Austria. Presented here is only the result of preliminary research, and it is likely the extent of this system was spatially wider, and temporally deeper. The objective of this paper is only to provide an evidential and logical basis from which the hypothesis can be rendered plausible. Zusammenfassung Dieser Beitrag stellt die Hypothese vor, die ich in meiner Doktorarbeit untersuche. Diese Hypothese ist, dass ein bedeutender, archäologisch beobachtbarer Faktor in der gesellschaftlichen Entwicklung im Zeitraum zwischen ca. 800-450 v.Chr. (Hallstatt C-D3) die Entwicklung eines indigenen Wirtschaftssystems war, das primär, wenn auch nicht ausschließlich, auf Eisen und Salz z.B. aus Slowenien und dem Salzkammergut in Österreich beruhte. In diesem Beitrag werden die vorläufigen Ergebnisse meiner Forschungen zu dieser Thematik vorgestellt; wobei von Anfang an anzumerken ist, dass das hier vorgestellte System wahrscheinlich räumlich weiter ausgedehnt war und eine größere zeitliche Tiefe hat als hier vorgestellt wird. Ziel dieses Artikels ist daher nur, die Evidenz und logischen Grundlagen der Hypothese vorzustellen, die sie plausibel genug für genauere, weitere Untersuchungen erscheinen lassen.

The principle aim of the thesis was to examine the technology of Late Iron Age decorated metal
work at a time of dynamic change from both internal and external factors. The objects chosen for
this study were predominantly from dry land hoards, and superficially had many aspects in common.
The majority of these hoards were deposited in Britain in the mid first century AD (slightly later in
the case of Middlebie in south west Scotland), and located in areas of attested historical conflict with
the invading Roman army.
Predominant amongst the kind of objects in the hoards were those associated with horses and carts
or chariots; an artefact type of social and historical significance to native British Iron Age societies. It
is argued that the manufacture, use and deposition of these objects were important factors in
maintaining relationships between different Iron Age groups in the face of threats from an invading
force.
Chemical analysis of objects from this period is important. The first century AD witnessed both
technological sophistication and conservatism as the Iron Age metalworkers confronted the
introduction, through continental influence and the Roman army, of new materials such as brass,
and the re-introduction of piece moulds and leaded copper alloys. Coloured Roman glass was also
introduced and used in many parts of Britain, but Insular La Tène style metalwork continued to be
decorated using sealing wax red glass (a specific Iron Age technology). On the whole, an innate
conservatism in object styles and materials was maintained, irrespective of acquired knowledge and
the availability of new technologies. In fact, Late Insular La Tène art developed and flourished, as
some indigenous Britons adopted a strong identity through the use of specific objects, technologies
and artistic styles; recognisable throughout large parts of Britain.