Wooden Artefacts

The craft of woodturning dates back to Ancient Egypt and in particular Rameses III who is known to have invested heavily in specialist carpenters. It was brought to Europe from the Middle East by the ancient Greeks around the 7th century BC. Archaeological evidence for the craft in Ireland and Britain dates to the second century BC. The woodturners skills were an essential part of the material culture of both rural and urban communities up until the early 20th century. The importation of cheaper metal and earthenware goods from abroad lead to its decline in the 1930's.

Seni dalam kehidupan beragama tidak lepas dari seni bangunan yang mencerminkan kehidupan masyarakat daerah itu. Suku Toraja yang menetap di pegunungan daerah Sulawesi Selatan, Indonesia memiliki ritual yang khas yaitu makam batu Tana Toraja yang berkaitan dengan upacara pemakaman, rumah adat tongkonan dan ukiran kayunya. Masyarakat Toraja yang memiliki kekerabatan kuat menciptakan keharmonisan kehidupan baik dalam hal keduniawian dan kematian.

German - English - French
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Die Untersuchung der Holzartefakte von 13 Fundplätzen des Endmesolithikums und Frühneolithikums demonstriert die intensive Nutzung der marinen Ressourcen an der südwestlichen Ostseeküste. Der Fischfang mit stationären Anlagen, Reusen und Aalstechern war weit verbreitet. Weniger häufig wurde Fischfang mit Netzen oder die Angelfischerei betrieben. Durch Funde von Einbäumen und Paddeln in der Flachwasserzone ist der Gebrauch dieser Wasserfahrzeuge gut belegt. Weiterhin wurden Jagdgeräte wie Pfeil und Bogen oder Speere gefunden. Stiele für Stein- oder Geweihgeräte zeigen die Handhabung dieser Geräte.
Die Fischfanggeräte sind technisch weitgehend ausgereift und zeigen nur geringe Veränderungen.
Chronologische Entwicklungen sind lediglich für Paddel, kaum für Aalstechersprossen nachgewiesen. Kleine regionale Unterschiede werden durch die Nutzung anderer
Holzarten für die Herstellung von Aalstechersprossen und Reusen deutlich. Insgesamt kann für die Küstensiedlungen der Ertebølle-Kultur und des Frühneolithikums die Bevorzugung bestimmter, besonders gut geeigneter Holzarten für die Herstellung spezifischer Geräte und Gegenstände deutlich gezeigt werden.
Die Gleichförmigkeit der geraden Haselruten (Corylus avellana) im Fundmaterial und der Bedarf großer Mengen Flechtmaterial für die Fischzäune weist auf die intensive Nutzung der Haselsträucher hin. Basierend auf der Form, Größe, Jahrringanzahl und Jahrringweite der Stangen kann das „auf den Stock setzen“ der Hasel seit dem Endmesolithikum nachgewiesen werden. Der regelmäßige Schnitt von weiteren Sträuchern, namentlich Rotem Hartriegel (Cornus sanguinea) und Gemeinem Schneeball (Viburnum opulus), kann ebenso angenommen werden, da gerade Stangen dieser Gehölze gespalten und für die Herstellung von häufig verwendeten Fischreusen genutzt wurden. Die Art des Fischfangs mit stationären Zaunanlagen sowie die niederwaldartige Bewirtschaftung von Haselhainen erfordert die Sesshaftigkeit
in einem begrenzten Gebiet. Diese erste stark eingreifende Maßnahme zur bewussten Produktion von natürlichen Rohstoffen leitet zum Wesen der neolithischen Wirtschaftsweise hin.

SUMMARY The investigation of wooden artefacts from thirteen Terminal Mesolithic and Early Neolithic sites shows that the marine environment of the southwestern Baltic Sea was used intensively. Fishing with the help of stationary structures, fish trap baskets and eel catching spears was widespread. By comparison, fishing with nets and hooks was less commonly employed. Travelling and transport with log boats manoeuvred by paddles is welldemonstrated by wooden finds from the shallow water zone. Moreover, hunting tools such as bows and arrows as well as spears were excavated. Handles for stone and antler axes show how these tools were hafted.
Fishing implements were already technically advanced, so there was little variation through time. Small signs of chronological development were only found for paddles and leister prongs. Furthermore, minor regional distinctions became evident in the usage of different types of wood for producing leister prongs and fish trap baskets. Generally, a preference for certain, well-suited types of wood to create specific objects or tools could be proven for coastal settlements of the Ertebølle Culture and the Early Neolithic.
The uniformity of straight hazel poles in the find material, and the requirement of large quantities of such poles for the construction of wattle fishing fences indicate that hazel
bushes (Corylus avellana) were used intensively. Based on shape, size, age and annual ring widths of the hazel poles, the coppicing of hazel bushes could be proven for the Terminal Mesolithic and later. The regular cutting of red dogwood (Cornus sanguinea) and guelder rose bushes (Viburnum opulus) can also be assumed since straight rods from these plants were split and used to build fish trap baskets, which were likewise in high demand. In addition to this kind of woodland management, the exploitation of fish with stationary structures required sedentism in a restricted habitation area as well. This is one of the first profound interventional procedures indicating a purposeful production of natural resources, thereby leading towards the Neolithic economy.

RESUMÉ L’examen d’artefacts en bois provenant de 13 sites du Mésolithique final et du Néolithique ancien démontre l’exploitation intensive des ressources marines sur la côte sudouest de la Baltique. La pêche à l’aide d’installations passives, de nasses et de foënes était fort répandue. Plus rarement furent utilisés les filets et l’hameçon. La découverte de pirogues monoxyles et de pagaies en zone peu profonde prouve l’usage de ce véhicule. On a également découvert des armes de chasses telles que des flèches et des arcs, ou encore des javelots. Les manches des outils en pierre ou bois de cerf indiquent comment ils furent manipulés.
Les engins de pêche sont très développés techniquement et ne présentent que de légers changements. On constate des évolutions chronologiques seulement pour les pagaies, à peine pour les dents de foëne. L’utilisation d’essences différentes pour la fabrication des dents de foëne et des nasses révèle nettement de légers écarts régionaux. Globalement, on peut établir que les habitants des sites côtiers de la culture d’Ertebølle et du Néolithique ancien affichaient une préférence pour certaines essences particulièrement adaptées à la fabrication d’outils et d’objets spécifiques. La régularité des verges de noisetier (corylus avellana) dans le matériel archéologique et les besoins en matériaux pour le tressage de barrages révèle une exploitation intensive des noisetiers. La forme et la grandeur des perches, ainsi que le nombre et la largeur de leurs cernes, indiquent que les noisetiers étaient « rabattus jusqu’à la souche » dès le Mésolithique final. La coupe régulière d’autres arbustes, notamment le cornouiller sanguin (cornus sanguinea) et la viorne obier (viburnum opulus), peut être aussi envisagée, vu que des perches régulières appartenant à ces essences ont été fendues et utilisées pour la fabrication des nasses fort répandues. Le mode de pêche avec des installations de palissades et
l’exploitation des bosquets de noisetiers par recépage exigent une sédentarité dans un territoire limité. Cette première mesure radicale en vue de produire sciemment des matières premières naturelles mène au coeur de l’économie de production néolithique. (Y.G.)

The collections of wooden artifacts from wetland Stone Age settlements bring another questions about the specific
features of their methods of making. The study is based on experiments with replicas of stone, bone and antler
tools with use-wear traces from wood-working operations and the comparison of technological traces on wood
items and those found on archaeological artifacts. The study of two collections from Mesolithic sites of Eastern
Europa Zamostje 2 and Veretje 1 shows the different technological traditions in tool production.

Investigations of Stone Age waterlogged sites in eastern Europe pose a great scientific interest due to the excellent preservation of organic materials. Excavations of settlements like Sārnate, Zvidze (Latvia), Šventoji (Lithuania), Purkajasuo (Finland), and Okhta 1 (Russia) are among the best examples of such research. New investigations in 2010–2013 at the peat-bog site of Zamostje 2 (Sergiev Posad district, Moscow region, Russia) were of special interest thanks to the discovery of a specific fishery zone dated to the Late Mesolithic–Early Neolithic periods. Several constructions made of wood were found in this particular part of the settlement: among them two fish traps made of wooden splinters and bound by common reed tapes, mobile fish screens, and 150 wooden piles. These finds, along with wooden, bone, antler, and pine bark artefacts (fish hooks, harpoons, floats, fishnet knots, paddles, etc.) allow us to state that fishery was a basic economic activity at this site. This statement is further supported by a large number of finds, including fish bones and fish scales, found in relevant cultural layers. Similar fishing constructions have been found recently at other sites in European Russia, too. In this article, we present main elements of the fishing economy at Zamostje 2 and some newly-found materials from other sites in central and northwestern Russia. We also propose a typology for wooden fishing structures and outline some patterns of fishing strategies for this territory in the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods.

Prehistoric sites preserved in the waterlogged environments of northern Europe, the Baltic region, and Russia possess a number of common features related to the specifics of their locations in prehistoric times and the later conditions of their preservation. The lake settlements of the forest zone of European Russia did not undergo any drastic changes in their economy based on hunting and fishing during most of the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. The importance of fishing can be understood by studying the remains of wooden items from such sites, which include utensils like paddles, floats, and nets, as well as fish traps and other fishing constructions. The comprehensive analysis of wooden artefacts enables not only a detailed reconstruction of woodworking traditions and techniques at the sites, but also the reconstruction of the surrounding landscape, as exemplified by recent studies made at the Zamostje 2 site (Sergiev Posad district, Moscow region, Russia). This article presents the results of these studies. The assemblage of wooden artefacts – with more than 300 items – and fishing structures (fish traps, weirs, and fish screens) found at the Zamostje 2 site currently represents a unique opportunity to assess not only the role of wood in hunter-fisher societies during the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods in the forest zone of eastern Europe, but also the scientific potential of this fragile find material category.

Archaeological sources provide a wide range of information to help understand the social structure of human society in the past. In this paper, the authors deal with the information potential of grave pit modifications and wooden structures in graves at burial sites in the central region of Great Moravia (southeast Moravia, southwest Slovakia). The goal at this point is to define the basic hypotheses and describe the methodological basis along with the research methodology. The authors treat the sources holistically, which means that one of the methodological foundations is the claim that the properties of the whole are not a simple sum of its parts. This means that all recognized elements of the funeral rite and their mutual relations and functions are the center of attention of this research. The primary basis for the research is the assumption that the presence of various wooden structures or wooden burial receptacles in the graves of the Great Moravian period is a common cultural occurrence. It further tests the hypothesis that there was intent behind choosing of these different wooden structures and grave pit modifications and their usage, as well as a potential differentiation based on age or gender in the frequency, quality and selection of these modifications/arrangements and structures.

PALAZZI DEL CINQUECENTO A ROMA
   
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a cura di Claudia Conforti e Giovanna Sapori


Presentazione di Caterina Bon Valsassina        VII

Premessa di Claudia Conforti, Giovanna Sapori    XI

Giovanna Sapori: Maestri, botteghe, équipes e cantieri nei palazzi romani: Perino del Vaga, Salviati, Vasari e Zuccari      1

Sonia Amadio: Allestire una parete: disegni per la decorazione ad affresco nei palazzi romani    53

Paola Picardi: La decorazione dei palazzi farnesiani alla metà del Cinquecento    67

Nicolas Cordon: Artifices et paradoxes. Daniele da Volterra et les décors de stuc en très haut relief      83

Jan L. de Jong: Paintings in Palaces: Descriptions and Inscriptions    101

Patrizia Di Benedetti, Giovanna Sapori: Una banca dati sulla decorazione dei palazzi fra 1540 e 1570      111

Beatrice Cirulli: I palazzi descritti e illustrati nelle guide di Roma del Cinquecento      119

Patrizia Di Benedetti: La rappresentazione dei palazzi romani nelle incisioni del Cinquecento    153

Ludovica Tiberti: Le incisioni di palazzi nel mercato delle stampe a Roma tra Cinque e Seicento    167

Ilaria Sferrazza: “Palazzi di Roma de più celebri architetti”: Pietro Ferrerio pittore e architetto    185 
     
Christoph Luitpold Frommel:  Prima del Sacco di Roma: all'origine del palazzo romano      201

Federico Bellini: Il portale nel palazzo romano  231

Nicoletta Marconi: L’ornamento lapideo      255

Micaela Antonucci: «Tutto passa per le scale»: la scala nei palazzi romani    271

Carla Trovini: Stalle e rimesse nei palazzi romani    291

Claudia Conforti, Maria Grazia D’Amelio: Di cieli e di palchi: soffitti lignei a lacunari    308

Claudia Conforti, Maria Grazia D’Amelio: Camini dei palazzi romani      354

Sabine Frommel: Gli Hôtels particuliers a Parigi dal XV al XVII secolo      392

Manolo Guerci: I palazzi londinesi dello Strand: 1550–1650    419

Abstracts    431

Bollettino d'Arte
via San Michele, 22 - 00153 ROMA tel.06 6723 4329
e-mail: bollettinodarte@beniculturali.it

People  used  wood  from  various  trees  not  only  on  the basis of their availability, but also the purpose it was to serve. Wood of both deciduous and coniferous trees  was  used  for  building  purposes.  Construction  elements  of  ramparts  or  load-bearing  elements  of  housing  buildings  were  made  primarily  from  oak  Quercus.  Scots  pine  Pinus  sylvestris  was  also  commonly  used  as  building  material.  Remains  of  other  trees (e.g.: hornbeam Carpinus betulus, alder Alnus, aspen Populus  tremula,  spruce  Picea  abies,  poplar  Populus, fir Abies  alba,  beech  Fagus  sylvatica)  are  less frequently discovered on archaeological sites.Utility  objects,  including  cooking  utensils,  were  hollowed out or turned from wood of trees available in  the  vicinity  of    (especially  the  above  mentioned)  and  bushes  (e.g.:  conifer  Taxus  bac-cata  L.  whose  pliant  wood  was  a  valuable  material  for  manufacturing  weapons;  lilac  Sambucus  sp.  or  common spindle Euonymus sp. from which spindles, needle-cases or reels were made), which are now mar-ginally used because of their poisonous properties.Tree  bark  (e.g.:  linden  Tilia,  birch  Betula,  oak  Quercus or elm Ulmus) was also used to make wo-ven  bark  containers,  dyes  and  paints  or  medicinal  substances, and to produce wood tar on a large scale. However, relics of wooden (but also other organ-ic)  artifacts  are  not  common  among  archaeological  finds  –  they  are  mostly  preserved  on  damp  sites,  especially  in  bodies  of  water,  marshes  or  bogs  –  in  places  protected  from  changeable  environmental  conditions.  On  multilayer  sites,  e.g.  in  cities,  such  places  are  especially  relics  of  wells  or  cesspits.  During  the  last  decades,  well  preserved  construc-tions  or  wooden  items  from  archaeological  objects  have  become  invaluable  in  narrowing  down  dating  in archaeology thanks to applying scientific methods – e.g. dendrochronology.Between relative chronology and yearly datesLike  other  historical  sciences,  archaeology  aims  at determining dating and mutual relations between discovered artifacts (products, layers, objects, struc-tures etc.).
185were  covered  by  the  younger.  However,  one  should  remember  the  cases  of  the  so  called  reversed  stra-tigraphy  caused  by  e.g.  violent  shifts  of  soil  layers  on  slopes.  Another  method,  typological,  involves  analysing formal similarities between artifacts. Seriation is also possible – an analysis of transformations and features of discovered products or an analysis of stylistic  changes  in  their  decoration.  Such  methods  allow for relative dating – situating the discovery in time  in  the  “older  –  younger  –  simultaneous”  rela-tion. But they do not show the time span.The need for precise dating of discovered artifacts, objects  and  accumulations  urges  archaeologists  to  seek  new  methods  for  establishing  the  chronology  independent of subjective assessment or a scientist’s intuition, and to indicate calendar dates (“absolute”). One  of  those  is  dendrochronology  –  since  the  mid-20th century it has been applied in many disciplines of science, such as geo-botanic, ecology, climatology or  historical  sciences.  That  science  and  method  of  wood dating is used in archaeology for establishing the age of that material used by man in various, es-pecially historic, times. It allows for determining the time  when  the  tree  was  growing.  And  the  moment  when it was cut down is the time after which it could have been used by man. Therefore, precision of den-drochronological  dating  is  limited  to  indicating  the  date after which (post  quem) the wooden structure or object was created.Dating  is  possible  thanks  to  synchronising  the  sequences  of  tree  growth  with  calendar  dates.  Se-quences of dates are established for various kinds of trees growing in different geographical regions – the longest  sequence  in  Europe,  for  contemporary  and  fossil  oaks  from  southern  Germany,  is  10  430  years  long (i.e. till the year 8 480 BC). The length of scale for  a  given  region  indicates  a  maximum  period  of  dendrochronological dating.In  Europe  the  rudiments  of  dendrochronology  was  the  work  of  a  German  botanist,  Bruno  Huber,  developing this discipline since the 1930s.The  first  dendrochronological  laboratories  in  Poland  were  established  in  the  1980s  (Academy  of  Fine Arts in Warszawa – Tomasz Ważny, 1986.; Sile-sian  University  of  Technology  in  Gliwice  –  Tomasz  Goslar,  1987;  University  of  Science  and  Technology  in Kraków – Marek Krąpiec, 1988; Mikołaj Kopernik University in Torun – Andrzej Zielski, 1989). As a re-sult of their work regional sequences of tree growth were created, and chronology of archaeological sites and  objects  was  narrowed  down,  particularly  from  the period between the turn of the eras and the earlyhistorical times.Oak casing of the well in Brzezie.

L'estudi d'eines de fusta provinents de jaciments prehistòrics de medis humits suscita qüestions en torn trets específics vinculats als seus mètodes de manufactura. L'estudi es fonamenta en una experimentació realitzada amb instruments de pedra, os i banya emprats en el treball de fusta, i en l'estudi de les traces tecnològiques desenvolupades sobre la superfície d'aquestes fustes i la seva comparació amb fustes arqueològiques. L'estudi de les col·leccions provinents de dos jaciments mesolítics d'Europa oriental -Zamostje 2 i Veretje 1-mostra diferents tradicions tecnològiques en la producció de les eines. Eines de fusta, traces tecnològiques, Mesolític, Europa oriental. The collections of wooden artifacts from wetland Stone Age settlements bring another questions about the specific features of their methods of making. The study is based on experiments with replicas of stone, bone and antler tools with use-wear traces from wood-working operations and the ...

Изучение торфяниковых стоянок имеет длительную историю, которой более 200 лет. Особый интерес этих памятников состоит в том, что на них сохраняются такие редкие археологические источники, как обработанное дерево и другие растительные материалы, которые чрезвычайно широко использовались древним населением для создания жилищ, транспорта, хозяйственных сооружений и инвентаря. Среди такого рода стоянок на территории Европейской России одно из
ключевых мест занимает Замостье 2 — многослойное озерное поселение позднего мезолита — среднего неолита. Богатый инвентарь, залегающий в четких стратиграфических условиях, обладает большим информационным потенциалом и служит базой для проведения разносторонних археологических и естественно-научных изысканий. Накопленные почти за 30 лет исследований данные, с одной стороны, позволили сформулировать ответы на некоторые проблемы развития материальной культуры и исторического процесса, с другой стороны — поставили ряд новых вопросов и конкретных задач, затрагиваемых в данной работе.

Dolní Věstonice II has a large assemblage of preserved charred wood and charcoals, which contains some evidence of worked artefacts.
Preserved in this assemblage are complex adjustments using cutting and polishing, forming the shapes of tools, as well as examples of the simpler working of artefacts using cutting, including waste generated during their processing.
Artefacts and charcoals were preserved due to the specific conditions of charring, when a large part of the assemblage was charring without access of air, and charcoals from the fireplaces are well preserved thanks to the overlaying loess.
Coniferous wood was mainly used, but to a lesser extent, deciduous trees are documented. Also documented in the assemblage was the use of dry wood infested with wood-destroying insects. The large charcoal fragments that have been studied display a long tree-ring series, which is ideal for the reconstruction of the short period climatic variations. The warmer oscillations are documented in the order single year to several years in a row.

""Wooden items are extremely rare fi nds at Stone Age dwelling sites. Only about 30 wooden items are known
for the Paleolithic period. Mesolithic and Neolithic items have only been preserved in the humid conditions
of peat-bog sites. In this regard, the collection of wooden artifacts from Zamostje 2 (in the Moscow region)
dwelling site, which has Late Mesolithic and Early Neolithic layers (6th – beginning of the 5th millennia BC),
is undoubtedly of interest. The assemblage includes handles of polished axes and adzes, implements for hunting
and fi shing, fragments of crockery, objects of “art”, fl attened points, and numerous details of unknown
tools and constructions. Many of the items are unique and have no analogies in materials from synchronous
sites. The surface of many of the artifacts is well-preserved, hence it became possible to undertake a selective
technological analysis of the traces of treatment. The analysis revealed specifi c details of the treatment
techniques for items from different layers, in particular, of the relief working of the surfaces with a stone adze,
which is characteristic of the lower layer.""

Статья посвящена анализу деревянных предметов конского снаряжения из средневекового катакомбного могильника Даргавс аланской культуры, расположенного в Северной Осетии. Все анализируемые предметы происходят из погребений середины VIII - начала IX в.  Подробно рассмотрена морфология двух фрагментов деревянных плетей, деревянного стремени и гребня. Полученные выводы расширяют наши представления о составляющих элементах конского снаряжения используемого в среде аланского населения.

The thesis is submitted to University College Dublin in part fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Arts in Archaeology.

The modern world is in the early phases of a technological era, where advancing technology is being developed constantly; and as a result, it is only natural that the field of archaeology develops along with it and takes advantage of these developments. This research project seeks to provide insight into the current state of 3D technologies, and its potential when working with wooden, earthen and metallic material types. This paper also aims to illustrate the methodologies used when working with these material types, particularly regarding their digital representations, and how they compare to their physical counterparts, and the difficulties and obstacles that may occur when working with these material types using current technology.

In 2013 heeft de Universiteit van Amsterdam een archeologisch onderzoek uitgevoerd in  het plangebied Leiderdorp-Plantage. Eerder uitgevoerd inventariserend veldwerk door Archeomedia in 2003 had al aangetoond dat op deze locatie een vroegmiddeleeuwse nederzetting was gelegen aan een in de Karolingische periode zwaar beschoeide geul, een zijarm van de Oude Rijn. In de nabijheid van het plangebied zijn meer vroegmiddeleeuwse vindplaatsen bekend. In het voorliggende hoofdstuk wordt verslag gedaan van het houtspecialistische onderzoek aan bouwhout en houten voorwerpen die tijdens de opgraving tevoorschijn kwamen. Het gaat om (verspoeld) bouwhout van oeverbeschoeiingen, van aanlegplaatsen, waterputten en van enkele gebouwstructuren. De houten voorwerpen zijn voornamelijk afkomstig uit een afvallaag van de geul die uit de eerste helft van de 9e eeuw dateert, en daarnaast uit waterputten en kuilen.

Abstrakt: Příspěvek je věnován souboru dřevěných artefaktů, které pocházejí ze záchranných výzkumů v areálu
historického jádra města Jihlavy a 3 km vzdálené hornické lokality Bedřichov-Pfaffenhof, které probíhaly v letech
1975–2010. Dřevěné artefakty jsou rozděleny do skupin podle jejich možné funkce, kterou zastávaly v hmotné kultuře
středověkého města Jihlavy. Podle nálezových okolností byly datovány do rozmezí druhé poloviny 13. až 15. století.
Abstract: This contribution is dedicated to a series of wooden artefacts yielded by rescue research carried out in 1975–2010 in the area of the historical centre of Jihlava, as well as in the Bedřichov-Pfaffenhof mining location situated 3 km from it. The wooden artefacts have been divided into groups according to their presumed function in the material culture of medieval Jihlava. They have been dated, on the basis of find circumstances, to the period between the second half of the 13th century and the 15th century.

Sergeyeva M.S. Woodwork of everyday usage from Kolodyazhyn. Woodwork found from 1948 to 1953 in Old Rus hillfort near Kolodyazhne village in Zhytomyr oblast’ (Old Rus town of Kolodyazhyn) is published in the article. Artifacts are divided into two groups: small remains of inner structures and everyday goods. Ware and tare containers form the majority of the preserved domestic items. According to the production technique they are divided into cooper’s, hollowed out, carved, and turned items. There are also containers made of bark and phloem. Wood determination showed that pine was the material for cooperage, maple, ash-tree and alder (in one case) used for turned ware production. There are remains of three carved wares made of oak. Fragmented spoons, a part of churn, and a spindle were also found among the everyday usage inventory. Analysis of items and of woodworking inventory allow the author to conclude that besides handicraft industry, specialists related with woodwork, coopers, carvers, and turners could live in the hillfort. Combination of narrow specialized tools with agricultural ones, and sometimes with armaments observed in some complexes could testify that woodwork was not the only activity for their owners. However, despite the fact that everyday life items production did not refer to narrow specialized crafts, it is possible to state that there was a circle of people who supplied with their products not only themselves, but also a certain number of customers.

Extensive archaeological excavations at the site 16 in Chłopice (dist. Jarosław), followed by the construction of the A4 motorway between Przeworsk and Radymno, was commissioned by the General Directorate for National Roads and Motorways. The studies were carried out in the period from September 2009 to September 2010. Geographically, the village Chłopice is located within the Sandomierz Basin, in the Podgórze Rzeszowskie. The discovered settlement was situated on a gentle slope with the southern exposure, and its lowest parts were partially within the bottom of the valley of a small watercourse – the Łęg Rokietnicki. The area was characterized by the presence of the loessy subsoil covered with sediments coming from the erosion of black soil of varying thickness and stratigraphy. What is more, under the accumulation layer there was peat bog deposited in the bottom of the valley. The studied area covered almost 2.5 hectares. 1010 features were uncovered at the site, including: traces of dwellings sunken in the ground and farm buildings, free standing ovens and hearths, pits of various economic nature, postholes (forming sometimes a rectangular outline of the building), a fragment of a wooden bridge and traces of other wooden structures, a well, remains of the old road, a shooting ditch and some cuts of uncertain functions. The predominant category of movable artefacts was a collection of pottery vessels (over 3000 fragments). Moreover, there were other discovered finds at the site: other clay artefacts (spindle whorls, loom weights parts, fragments of stove tiles, pipes), metal objects (e.g. a fibula, buckle, projectile point, fragments of horseshoes), stone items (whetstones, hammer stone-grinders), as well as flint, glass (e.g. fragments of a lump, modern pieces of vessels), bone (skis, a polishing item) and wood (elements of the bridge, etc.) implements. The chronology of the uncovered traces of the settlement revealed: the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age (several flint artefacts), Early Iron Age and the Early La Tene period (Tarnobrzeg Lusatian culture), Younger and Late Roman period (Przeworsk culture), Early Middle Ages, Late Middle Ages (several ceramic artefacts) as well as Modern and contemporary periods. Some of the artefacts stayed undetermined in terms of the chronology, while the two were determined generally as prehistoric.

M.S. Sergeeva. Old Rus woodworks from Kyselivka hill
Wooden artifacts found in 1948 in the building dated 12th – 13th c. at Kyselivka hill (Kiev) are published.
The most interesting is a big turned plate of a diameter about 44-46 cm, made of ash-tree. The remains of tare are represented by the fragments of hollowed vessels (no less than three items of different sizes) and a bottom of a small carved vessel made of lime-tree, as well as y by pine-tree clapboards of cooper’s ware.
In addition to ware, fragments of hazel trunk with a groove (supposedly the remains of structure) and fragments of two panels made of wood of the same kind were found. Panels had relief-profiled upper plane and, apparently, carried decorative functions. Fragments of trunk chopped lengthwise, with 24-26 mm and 27-28 mm diameter, with roughly whittled surface were also found. Judging by their sizes they can be regarded as work material for similar panels or for hoops of cooper’s ware. The main occupation of the owner of the dwelling apparently was a jeweller’s craft (a casting mould was found), but finds of wood with traces of processing allow to presume that at least part of wooden utensils was made by owner of dwelling himself, apparently within home crafts.

Os produtos manufaturados em madeira são fundamentais para a sociedade moderna, visto que os mesmos são fabricados a partir de matéria-prima renovável e reciclável, caracterizando um insumo sustentável. O objetivo deste trabalho consistiu em elucidar a importância da madeira de florestas plantadas na manufatura de produtos florestais com maior valor agregado, abordando os contextos florestais e madeireiros de tópicos relacionados à educação, recursos, produtos, indústrias, incentivos estatais, políticas públicas e mercado. Verificou-se que o Brasil, diferente da Europa, não estimula favoravelmente esse importante setor industrial, que ainda assim apresenta potencial de crescimento em função da diversidade de produtos à base de madeira. Desse modo, a madeira poderá alcançar um lugar de destaque na economia do País, se estratégias e incentivos forem definidos por meio de normas e políticas públicas.

In recent years, constant progress has been made with regard to wood-dating techniques. In Italy, both the number and length of dendrochronological reference chronologies have increased so that by now the last 10,000 years are almost completely covered. This indispensable dating method has provided new ways for studying archaeological and prehistoric finds. New technologies have remarkably improved the sampling techniques, which today, in most cases, are very effective and non-evasive. Modern software now allows easy data management and statistical analyses. Apart from dendrochronology, the diffusion of isotope analysis has also had great impetus. With regard to radiocarbon dating, the calibration curve has been enriched by new data, and several peaks of cosmic emissions have been identified that, in future, can be instrumental in improving dating precision. Apart from radiocarbon, the isotope analyses of O, H and Sr, especially if linked with dendrochronology, allow to refine the information regarding dating and, in many cases, permits to determine the timber's provenance and even to define precisely the environmental conditions for the growth of the tree, from which the wood has been obtained. Today, finally, we can assert that all wood can be dated. Only the precision of dating still varies but constant progress is being made in that regard, too.

Konya il merkezinin kuzeybatı tarafında yer alan ve buradan yaklaşık olarak 122 kilometre uzakta bulunan Doğanhisar ilçesi, Geç dönem Osmanlısında tıpkı merkezde de muadilleri bulunabilen özgün ahşap mihraplı camilere sahiptir. Bölgede 18 ile 20. yüzyıllarda inşa edilen Geç dönem Osmanlı camilerinin mihrapları genellikle ahşap olarak yapılmıştır. Doğanhisar ilçesinde ele aldığımız mihrap örneklerinin tamamı ahşap olup, neredeyse tasarım ve süsleme özellikleriyle oldukça benzer özellikler ortaya koymaktadır. Günümüzde genellikle farklı renklerde yağlı boyalarla boyanmış olan mihrap yüzeylerinin hemen altında tezat renkle kontrast oluşturan kumaşlarının boyanması bazı süsleme özelliklerinin bozulmasına neden olmuştur. Doğanhisar’daki geç dönem Osmanlı Cami mihrapları geometrik, bitkisel ve yazılı olarak süslenirken, bu mihraplarda herhangi bir usta ismi ile karşılaşılmamıştır. Mihrapların il merkezi ve ile uzakta kalan taşradaki ilçeyle aynı özellikleri gösteriyor olması Orta Anadolu’ya da dönemin Konya bölgesi için bir tasarım geleneği olabileceğini akla getirmektedir. Yüksek Lisans tezinden özetle ortaya çıkarılan bu çalışmada amaç, daha basit ve anlaşılır bir dille bölge mihrapları hakkında bilgiler ortaya koymaktır.

Doğanhisar district, located on the northwest side of Konya city center and approximately 122 kilometers away, has original wooden mihrab mosques in the late Ottoman period, which can be found in the center as well. The mihrabs of the late period Ottoman mosques built in the 18th and 20th centuries in the region were generally made of wood. All of the mihrab examples we have discussed in Doğanhisar district are wooden, and they show very similar features in terms of design and ornamentation. The dyeing of the fabrics that contrast with the contrasting color just below the mihrab surfaces, which are generally painted with oil paints in different colors today, has caused some decorative features to deteriorate. While the mihrabs of the late Ottoman mosques in Doğanhisar were decorated with geometric, floral and written forms, No master names were encountered in these mihrabs. The fact that the mihrabs show the same characteristics as the city center and the rural district, which is far from the city center, suggests that it may be a design tradition for Central Anatolia or the Konya region of the period. In this study, which is summarized from the master's thesis, our aim is to reveal information about the altars of the region in a simpler and more understandable language.