Palmira Faraci

Background: The assessment of hopelessness plays a significant role in preventing various psychological disorders and major life events within the general population. However, the psychometric properties of the Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS) have been a subject of controversy, primarily studied in clinical groups. The aim of the present study was to gain new psychometric insights and propose a new short version of the BHS for the general population using the Item Response Theory (IRT) approach.
Methods: A total of 2164 Argentinean individuals completed the BHS alongside the Inventory of Suicide Orientation-30. We compared IRT models with two and three parameters for the original BHS version, exploring the removal of redundant and less informative items. Convergent and discriminant validity was also examined.
Results: Our results support the 2PL model for the BHS-19. In addition, the BHS-10 short version adequately depicted the same range of the measured trait as the original version, showing reasonable measurement accuracy in the middle-high levels of the trait (marginal reliability = 0.70, Cronbach's α = 0.86). Notably, a positive
correlation was found between the factorial score of BHS-10, BHS-19, and suicide orientation.
Conclusions: In conclusion, our findings support the use of a simplified version as a practical and valuable tool for both research and clinical practice in the future.

This cross-cultural study seeks to (a) investigate the internal structure of the English version of the SatisfactionWith Life Scale (SWLS) when administered to non-native English speakers (i.e., Asian individuals and (b) test for measurement invariance with its Italian counterpart). The whole sample comprises 338 participants, including 167 Asian international university students residing in the United States (50.3% females; Mage = 23.82, SD = 3.78) and 171 Italian university students living in Italy (69.6% females; Mage = 22.38, SD = 4.24). The dimensionality of the scale is assessed through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and multi-group confirmatory factor analysis (MG-CFA) is employed to examine measurement invariance. The results confirm the one-dimensionality of
the SWLS [χ2 = 9.815; df = 5; CFI = 0.989; TLI = 0.977; SRMR = 0.027]. Furthermore, achieving full strict invariance indicates that the SWLS items exhibit similar structures across both samples. The scale shows satisfactory internal reliability (α = 0.863, ω = 0.866). Overall, this study supports the cross-validity of the English version of the SWLS and underscores its robustness and suitability for assessing life satisfaction among non-native English speakers.

Introduction: Projective methods are recognized as a core instrument in the description and interpretation of personality. The Zulliger test (Z-test) is based on the Rorschach Inkblot test, but it consists of only three cards. It has been mainly used in the collective administration mode and in the context of human resources assessment in organizations. The aim of the present study is to start a standardization of the Z-test on non-clinical Italian population, in individual administration mode. Method: Sample was composed by 360 healthy subjects (180 male and 180 females, mean age 38.25), divided into age groups (18-30; 31-45; 46-60) and education (high and low). All subjects were administered the Z-test in individual form. Results: Results show popular responses for each card, obtained by 17% of sample, and answers of statistical good formal quality, reported by at least 2% of subjects. Conclusion: Although this study has some limitations, it can be considered a good starting point for introducing the Z-test into clinical practice. In future research the sample may be expanded, also including clinical population and detecting specific psychopathological indicators.

The phenomenon of statistics anxiety, prevalent particularly among students engaged in non-mathematical disciplines such as the social sciences, has been linked to a multitude of detrimental outcomes. Over time, several instruments have been developed to measure this construct; however, a comprehensive analysis of these instruments and an adequate evaluation of their psychometric properties have been
conspicuously absent. In an attempt to bridge this gap, we undertook a systematic review in accordance with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines using PsycINFO, Scopus, Web of Science, MEDLINE, and PubMed. Our focus was on studies that were published in peerreviewed English journals and reported a self-report measure of statistics anxiety. These included both original developments and further validations. We employed Skinner’s three-stage framework to assess the methodological quality of the instruments that were retrieved. Out of the 225 results that our search yielded, a mere 28 satisfied the inclusion criteria. The resulting papers reported on the psychometric properties of eight scales. The identified measures undoubtedly provide the potential of capturing some of the key features of the construct. However, our analyses unveiled certain psychometric limitations. Consequently, we advise researchers to either use the most psychometrically robust measures or conduct additional evaluations to ensure the accuracy of their results.

This study was addressed to assess nomophobia in an Italian sample (N = 456, 53.1% men, M age = 31.8, SD = 11.1), also providing a deeper knowledge about how it is distributed across demographics, as well as identifying its best predictors. The main goal was to investigate the direct and indirect effects of difficulty in emotion regulation and social interaction anxiety on nomophobia through loneliness. Our findings indicated that loneliness explained the effect of the expressive suppression strategy (fully) and social interaction anxiety (partially) on nomophobia, whereas it was not a significant mediator when the cognitive reappraisal strategy was taken into account. Our study suggests that loneliness during the pandemic plays a crucial role in explaining the associations between the investigated predictors and the outcome variable, offering a deeper understanding of the underlying mechanisms of this emerging construct. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed, and shortcomings and suggestions for future works are presented.

Introduction: The Internet, with its unlimited information, revolutionary communication capabilities, and innovative potential to expand knowledge, is ubiquitous throughout the world, but it also has significant implications for users' mental health. Given the not yet clearly defined and distinguishable nosographic categories of online addiction and the resulting difficulties in describing the impact on users' mental health, the present cross-sectional study aimed to gain new insights into the relationship between Internet addiction (especially social networking site [SNS] addiction), psychological distress, and physical discomfort, as well as gender differences in impact among users. Method: A sample of 583 Italian speakers (50.8% males; 48.7% females) with a mean age of 30.96 (SD = 12.12) completed an online survey in July 2021. A set of psychometric self-report instruments was administered to assess the study variables. Mediation analyses were performed for both the whole sample and across genders. Results: The study found that men exhibited higher levels of Internet addiction and craving than women, but no differences were found for SNS addiction. Furthermore, indicators of psychological distress (i.e., anxiety, depression, stress, loneliness, insomnia, and self-esteem) mediated the association between SNS addiction and body uneasiness, with slight differences across genders. Conclusion: This paper contributes to the existing literature on online addictive behaviors by also highlighting gender differences. The findings underscore the need for educational experiences that can prevent problematic use of the Internet and SNSs.

Using a valid and reliable scale to measure problems associated with excessive internet use is a key element of research on internet addiction (IA). The main goal of the current study was to develop a brief version of the Internet Addiction Test (IAT), the most widely used measure for assessing IA. In Study 1 (N = 463), we combined strict analytic techniques for item reduction with an evaluation of item content, and we compared several CFA and ESEM Models. In Study 2 (N = 374), we applied a Latent Variable Model (LMV) to examine the associations between our proposed short scale and some related variables. Our findings suggested a 7-item version (named IAT-7), with an ESEM structure and two domainspecific factors (F1: Interpersonal, Emotional and Obsessive Conflict; F2: Online Time Management). The IAT-7 showed excellent fit-indices [χ 2 = 13.373; df = 8; CFI = .994; TLI = .983; RMSEA = .030 (.000-.073); SRMR = .016; AIC = 9,276.944; BIC = 9,388.662; aBIC = 9,302.971] and an adequate level of internal consistency (alpha and omega > .752). Interpersonal, Emotional and Obsessive Conflict mainly predicted loneliness and depression, whereas Online Time Management was primarily associated with stress, followed by depression. The IAT-7 shows promising psychometric properties and could be used as a screening tool for evaluating IA. Its small number of items makes it more attractive when a large battery of assessment scales is used.

In modern industrialized countries, loneliness has been declared an epidemic. The present paper aimed to replicate previous findings about the dimensionality of the UCLA Loneliness Scale-3 version (LS-3) in a sample of Italian adults using Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling (ESEM). Methods: In Study 1, 1676 participants (M age = 31.15; SD = 11.89) completed the LS-3. The three-factor ESEM model was performed to replicate the previous Italian version, and a Confirmatory Factor Analysis compared the three-and ten-item short versions. In Studies 2, 3, and 4, we administered measures of anxiety, depression, stress, internet addiction, self-esteem, and social interaction anxiety to 3513 participants (M age = 30.81; SD = 11.77) to assess the convergent and discriminant validity of LS-3. Results: The ESEM 3-factor model was replicated using a Target rotation (X 2 = 847.597; df = 133; CFI = 0.942; TLI = 0.917; RMSEA = 0.062), whereas the already-known LS-3 short version raised psychometric concerns. Positive relationships with anxiety, depression, stress, internet addiction, and social interaction anxiety, as well as negative association with self-esteem were found. Conclusion: In conclusion, our findings support the use of the LS-3 in the Italian sample and discourage the administration of the current short forms. The implications for research and clinical practice have been discussed.

Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling (ESEM) has emerged as an intriguing approach for investigating the dimensionality of psychometric tools. The present study aimed to reflect on the advantages and drawbacks of the ESEM technique using the Orientation for Teaching Survey (OTS) as an application example. 338 Italian teachers, mostly
women (77.5%; Mage = 46.84, SD = 10.65) completed an online survey that evaluated the motivation for teaching and indicators of psychological well-being. Confirmatory and ESEM models were compared to test the OTS factor solution. A series of network analysis were performed to investigate the relationship between motivation for teaching and depression, anxiety, stress, optimism, intolerance of uncertainty, and self-esteem in the total sample as well as the precarious and in-role groups. Our study revealed the superiority of the bi-factor ESEM model for the OTS short version (c2 = 178.021, df = 102, CFI = .949, TLI = .923, RMSEA = .047, SRMR = .034; w = .88). The motivation for teaching was affected by psychological well-being indicators, particularly in the precarious group. The current study supported the use of the ESEM technique, especially for a complex and culturally oriented tool, as a simultaneously theory-driven and data-driven
approach. Furthermore, the network analysis showed preliminary findings helpful to overcome a knowledge gap in the motivation of Italian teachers. Cross-cultural studies that compare different school systems using ESEM might provide an innovative perspective on assessing motivation for teaching.

Background: This study aimed to identify clusters of long COVID-19 symptoms using latent class analysis and investigate the psychological factors involved in the onset of this syndrome. Method: Five hundred and six subjects recovering from COVID-19 completed a series of standardized
questionnaires to evaluate the personality traits, alexithymia, and post-traumatic stress. Results: Five classes were identified: Brain fog (31.82%), No symptoms (20.95%), Sensory disorders (18.77%), Breath impairment (17.59%), and Multiple disorders (10.87%). Women reported post-COVID-19 respiratory symptoms and multiple disorders to a greater extent than men. Hospitalized subjects were more likely to report persistent symptoms after COVID-19 than asymptomatic or home-treated subjects. Antagonism, hyperarousal, and difficulty identifying emotions significantly predicted post COVID-19 symptoms. Conclusions: These findings open new questions for research on long COVID-19 and how states of emotional dysregulation can alter the physiological processes of the body and contribute to the onset of organic pathologies.

Background: Social media platforms are a significant growth opportunity for enterprises, especially for microenterprises, due to the possibility of establishing direct contact with their customers. We investigate the psychological reasons that drive entrepreneurs towards the use of social
networking sites (SNSs) for their business, following two important social psychology theories: the theory of planned behaviour and the technology acceptance model. We also tested for two personality traits: openness to experience and dominance. Methods: Data were acquired by examining
325 microentrepreneurs who decided to use either SNSs or traditional sales methods for their businesses. Results and conclusions: Our results confirm that of all the behavioural antecedents tested, perceived usefulness and attitude towards SNSs’ effect on business proved to be the best predictors of the intention to use (or continue using) SNSs for business activity. Implications and suggestions for future research are also discussed.

The present study explored the susceptibility of maximizers to the effect of the specific information format—frequency vs. percentage—in a risk assessment task. One-hundred and fourteen participants were randomized into two experimental conditions: a frequency format and a percentage
format. In both conditions, participants had to rate the level of risk that a mental patient would harm someone after his discharge from a mental health facility, based on the information reported in the psychologist’s assessment for that patient. In the frequency condition, the information was presented in terms of frequencies, whereas in the percentage condition the same information was presented in terms of percentage. Our experiment showed that resolute maximizers are less affected by the
specific format of the task than fearful maximizers. Thus, we conclude that resolute maximizers are more normative decision-makers. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to explore the association between alexithymia, boredom, desire thinking, and subjective risk intelligence in individuals with gambling disorder (GD).
METHODS: A total of 94 participants (47 disordered gamblers and 47 control subjects) completed the following questionnaires: Toronto Alexithymia Scale - 20 (TAS-20), Multidimensional State Boredom Scale (MSBS), Desire Thinking Questionnaire (DTQ), Subjective Risk Intelligence Scale (SRIS).
RESULTS: The subjects with GD fall within the borderline range of the TAS-20 scores, with higher scores in the dimension of difficulty in identifying feelings (M=20.04, SD=7.25 vs. M=14.09, SD=2.68, P<0.001; d=1.08) and in the externally oriented thinking style (M=25.45, SD=2.95 vs. M=21.15, SD=5.33, P<0.001; d=0.99). Furthermore, the GD group has high scores of boredom and desire thinking than the control group. Finally, GD subjects showed lower SRIS total scores than the control ones, although the difference between the two groups was not statistically significant (M=65.45, SD=9.87 vs. M=68.34, SD=4.51, P=0.07; d=0.37). All variables investigated in the study were significantly correlated in the clinical group whereas no statistically significant correlations were shown in the control group.
CONCLUSIONS: This study seems to confirm that alexithymia, boredom, subjective risk intelligence, and desire thinking are strictly related in participants with GD. More specifically, the cognitive processes involved in desire thinking have an important role in the onset and maintenance of GD and need further investigation. Furthermore, this study underlines an interesting relationship between subjective risk intelligence and alexithymia in gamblers, which has not yet been adequately investigated in the literature on the topic. For this reason, our data represent an important starting point for future studies on this point.

The aims of this systematic review were (a) to analyze recent studies about the association between social support and coping strategies in cancer patients after an established diagnosis; (b) to evaluate the direction of this association; and (c) to highlight any differences among different cancer types. Seven databases were searched for studies reporting the association between coping and social support for cancer patients in the last 51 years. Most of the 52 included studies highlighted the association between coping and social support, regardless of the source. Our findings supported a bidirectional association. No significant differences were found among the different types of cancer. In conclusion, our results sustain the importance of knowledge in studying this association to identify social limits and resources for the well-being of oncological patients. This knowledge could lead to the creation of holistic protocols to prevent poor adjustment to cancer.

Purpose of Review The rapid development of social networking sites (SNSs) has affected adolescents' well-being with great impact on social experience. In this scoping review, we aimed to map out what is known from the most recent literature about adolescents' emotional well-being and the role of emotional regulation skills in preventing problematic SNS use. We used the Arksey and O'Malley methodological framework, and we based the study selection procedure on the PRISMA process. Then, we selected 52 English and peer-reviewed papers from PubMed, MEDLINE, PsycARTICLES, PsycINFO, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection, Wiley Online Library, and Web of Science. Recent Findings We found both positive and negative effects of SNS use on adolescents' emotions with online self-presentation and social comparison as key mechanisms to explain differences in subjective well-being. The risk of developing problematic use of SNSs is influenced by time spent on SNSs, active or passive use, and adolescents' social and emotional skills. Summary This review suggested the importance of emotional experiences and social support in both in-person and online interactions. Future research is needed to provide the basis for a better forthcoming classification of problematic SNS use.

Objective: Non-specific/chronic musculoskeletal disorder in neck, head or low back (that we called Upper Disorders; UD) are widely common health problem in high-income, urban, and industrialized countries, especially for sedentary people who use electronic devices. This systematic review aims to analyse the association between UD and psychological disease. Method: The database searches were conducted in 8 different databases, using relevant keywords. According to PRISMA Statements, full-text peer-reviewed articles in English which analysed the association between UD and indicators of psychological disease (i.e., mood disturbance, anxiety, depression, stress, social support, and alexithymia) in non-clinical sample were included. Results: Of 8798 abstracts and titles, 10 full-text papers were included. The overall results showed a strong association between UD and mood disturbance, anxiety, depression, stress, alexithymia, and low social support. Thus, high levels of UD were associated with high levels of psychological disease. Conclusions: The results supported the assessment of physical and psychological symptoms in a holistic perspective. Their implications in terms of holistic care and text neck syndrome were discussed.

This study was addressed to assess nomophobia in an Italian sample (N = 456, 53.1% men, M age = 31.8, SD = 11.1), also providing a deeper knowledge about how it is distributed across demographics, as well as identifying its best predictors. The main goal was to investigate the direct and indirect effects of difficulty in emotion regulation and social interaction anxiety on nomophobia through loneliness. Our findings indicated that loneliness explained the effect of the expressive suppression strategy (fully) and social interaction anxiety (partially) on nomophobia, whereas it was not a significant mediator when the cognitive reappraisal strategy was taken into account. Our study suggests that loneliness during the pandemic plays a crucial role in explaining the associations between the investigated predictors and the outcome variable, offering a deeper understanding of the underlying mechanisms of this emerging construct. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed, and shortcomings and suggestions for future works are presented.

Objectives Cancer is a frequent illness and a traumatic experience for both patients and their families. This systematic review aims to analyse studies that examine socio-demographic and clinical characteristics that predict the coping strategies in cancer patients.
Methods From January 2000 to March 2021, the database searches were conducted in 7 different databases, using relevant keywords. According to PRISMA Statements, full-text, peer-reviewed articles in English which used socio-demographics as independent variables and coping as dependent variables were included.
Results Of 1101 abstracts and titles, 30 full-text papers were included. Overall results showed a great influence of socio-demographic
characteristics (such as women, younger, in a relationship, with high educational level, with active work status, and high income) on
positive coping strategies adopted by cancer patients. Regarding clinical characteristics, no-metastatic patients who have recently been
diagnosed, especially in the early stage of cancer, and who know the characteristics of their illness and treatments, more frequently
used adaptive coping strategies.
Conclusions Both socio-demographics and clinical characteristics showed considerable influence on the coping strategies adopted by patients in most of the investigations. These results supported the assessment of basic patients’ information (sociodemographic and clinical characteristics) as fundamental to quickly outline an efficient, supportive, and holistic takingover, before all the essential and in-depth considerations.
Trial registration This systematic review was recorded in PROSPERO with the registration number: CRD42021254776.

The Sociocultural Adaptation Scale (SCAS) measures the degree of sociocultural competence in new cultural settings, and, despite its popularity, research aiming at evaluating its dimensionality is lacking and has incongruent results. Moreover, the dimensionality of the scale has been mainly tested on different samples adjusted to Eastern culture. We administered the SCAS to 266 international students sojourning in Los Angeles to test which underlying dimensionality emerges if the measure is
used to assess sociocultural adaptation toWestern culture, also verifying its measurement invariance across sex. Findings from EFA showed a three-factor solution: Diversity Approach, Social Functioning, and Distance and Life Changes, and the CFA indicated a plausible goodness-of-fit to the empirical data. The examination of MGCFA suggested that the questionnaire showed an invariant structure across sex. Our results suggest that the dimensionality of the SCAS may differ according to the sojourners’ country of settlement, emphasizingWestern–Eastern differences.

This study, after presenting a review of the existent literature on courage and social courage in the workplace, has the purpose of providing new evidence about the psychometric properties of an Italian-language version of theWorkplace Social Courage Scale (WSCS), verifying its measurement invariance across gender and the discrimination properties of its items through IRT analysis. The aim of the research is testing the Italian version of the WSCS; for this scope, four studies have been conducted on four different samples analyzing the factorial structure, the internal
consistency, the measurement invariance across gender, and the convergent and concurrent validity. The results support the psychometric properties in terms of factor structure, reliability, validity, and utility, showing positive relationships with the criterion variables: satisfaction of work-related basic needs, prosocial rule breaking and work performance. The current study extends prior findings by providing further insights about the construct of courage and social courage in the workplace,
especially in the Italian context. As, to date, little is known about the impact of social courage on work and organizational outcomes, the availability of a reliable, valid, and cross-culturally supported instrument can promote the role of this construct in positive organizational behavior research.

Introduction: The outbreak of the COVID-19 has largely impacted individuals’ health and lifestyles. This study aimed to investigate
people’s psychological well-being during the second phase of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Methods: We selected six indicators of psychological well-being: fear of COVID-19, loneliness, social interaction anxiety, generalized
anxiety, PTSD, and depression. A sample of 231 Italian participants (56.3% women), with a mean age of 32.7 (SD=12.61),
completed an online survey from February to March 2021, during the so called “second wave”. It included the Fear of COVID-19
Scale (FCV-19S), the UCLA Loneliness Scale- Version 3, the Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-item Scale (GAD-7), the Patient Health
Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), the Impact of Event Scale–Revised (IES-R), and the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS).
Results: Apart from loneliness, women reported lower levels of psychological well-being than men. Fairly good associations between
all the detected variables were found. Based on a mediation model evaluation (in which generalized anxiety was introduced as a
mediator in the relationship between fear of COVID-19, PTSD, loneliness, social interaction anxiety, and depression), except for social
interaction anxiety, total and partial mediation effects suggested that generalized anxiety played a crucial role in exacerbating
depressive symptoms during the pandemic.
Conclusion: Our outcomes may expand the knowledge about the psychological well-being during the pandemic experience, with a
focus on the mediating role of generalized anxiety.

Objective: This study aimed to investigate the relationships between emotional experiences and study motivation in a group of nonworking and never-infected university students, during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants: Participants (N = 353; aged M = 21.5; SD = 2.8)
were mostly female (76.2%) Italian university students. Methods: They completed an online assessment that included self-report measures of fear during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic, intolerance of uncertainty, optimism, and study motivation. Results: Our findings showed
that older students were more optimistic than younger students. Besides, fear of COVID-19, intolerance of uncertainty, and pessimism predicted worse study motivation. Conclusions: Greater psychological support should be reserved for younger students to prevent emotional experiences
that might affect the learning goal.

The Fatalism Scale is a valid and reliable instrument for measuring fatalistic beliefs about health. However, no previous studies have been conducted to verify its psychometric properties across different populations and, most importantly, during a public health emergency. Hence, this study aimed to examine the factorial structure, reliability, construct validity, and accuracy of measurement of the Fatalism Scale during the COVID-19 pandemic among Italian-speaking people. The total
sample was comprised of 300 participants. Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were performed. Construct validity was estimated by comparing fatalism scores with two theoretically-related
constructs (i.e., optimism, locus of control). The test information function was analyzed to evaluate the accuracy of measurement based on item response theory (IRT). Differences in fatalism scores across gender were examined by performing MANOVAs. Results show a four-factor model: Luck, Powerlessness, Predetermination, and Pessimism with adequate fit indices and satisfactory internal consistency. Data support the expected relationships between fatalism subscales and related measures. The test information function and standard error curve provide the largest amount of information around q= zero and two standard deviations above the mean in the latent trait. Significant differences across gender are observed in Luck and Pessimism subscales. Our study suggests that the Fatalism Scale is a valuable tool for assessing fatalism during an acute health crisis among Italian-speaking people. This instrument might be useful for assessing fatalism during future waves of the COVID-19
pandemic and other public health crises.

This study aimed to evaluate workload by detecting Heart Rate Variability (HRV) indexes in
a sample of 34 pilots (with a mean age of 33 years) while performing simulated ight exercises. A oneway
ANOVA with repeated measures was performed to assess the changes of the physiological measures in
ve standard maneuvers associated with different workload levels. The results show that all the indexes,
but the Low Frequency to High Frequency ratio index (LF/HF), have a well-dened trend between the
baseline and the en-route phase and with the three phases takeoff, steady turn, and landing. This study,
as main ndings, provides evidence of a differentiation among low, medium, and high workload levels using
the time, frequencies, and non-linear HRV domains of analysis. These ndings support the relevance of
HRV indexes for workload evaluation, suggesting the development of non-invasive instruments capable of
assessing workload in real-time. Further studies may be conducted to investigate whether the same ndings
could also be applied to more challenging maneuvers in real working conditions.

Introduction. The impact of cancer represents a severe crisis for both patients and
relatives. The implications of social support on well-being were well studied but
several classifications have been proposed. Objective. The present cross-sectional
study was aimed at examining the association between perceived social support
(PSS) from family, friends, and significant other and psychological well-being
(illness perception, life orientation, life satisfaction, and quality of life). Method.
Participants were 138 cancer patients recruited during waiting time for medical
treatment or examination, mostly diagnosed for more than six months. The
Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, the Illness Perception Questionnaire,
the Life Orientation Test-Revised, the Satisfaction with Life Scale, and
the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Quality of Life
Questionnaire were administered. Multiple regression analyses were performed.
Results. Patients reported fatigue and loss of energy, and environmental pollution
and change or bad luck as probable illness causes. Associations between (i) PSS
from family and optimism, (ii) PSS from friends and personal control, coherence of
disease, optimism, and physical functioning, (iii) PSS from significant other and life
satisfaction were found. Conclusions. Our results revealed a specific role for each
different PSS source.

The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has led governments to implement some containment measures to flatten the curve of the diffusion of the virus. The current study aims to investigate individual differences in compliance with these restrictive behaviors. In a sample of Italian individuals (N = 300), we examined whether sociodemographic factors, personality traits, fatalism, and fear could be considered as possible predictors. Methods: We performed a series of standard multiple regression analyses and proposed a mediation analysis to test the associations among variables. Results: Overall, our results suggested that men are less likely to engage in preventive behaviors, younger individuals are more reluctant to adhere to social distancing mandates, and fear has a functional role in predicting positive outcomes. Conclusion: The results of our analyses are discussed and suggestions for future research are provided.

The present study tested the hypothesis that maximizers – people who routinely seek to make optimal decisions rather than quickly settling for an acceptable one – are less susceptible to cognitive biases. Experiment 1 showed that high maximizers are less swayed by irrelevant differences in the framing of a decision-making scenario than are low maximizers. Experiment 2 confirmed that maximizers are also less likely to neglect important base rate information when making decisions. Experiment 3 showed that maximizers are less likely to stick with a bad plan in which they have already invested (the sunk-cost bias) and therefore are quicker to switch to a more attractive alternative plan. Thus, we conclude that maximizers are generally more normative decision-makers. The present
study also confirms the importance of using refined maximizing scales.

This study aimed to explore the prevalence of post-traumatic distress, alexithymia, dissociation, and addictive behaviors during the stressful situation of the COVID-19 pandemic. It also aimed to determine whether trauma, alexithymia, and dissociation can effectively predict the risk of addiction in non-clinical subjects during the COVID-19 pandemic. Two hundred nineteen subjects completed a web survey during the first COVID-19 lockdown in Italy, including the Impact of Event Scale-Revised (IES-R), the Dissociative Experience Scale-II (DES-II), and the Addictive Behavior Questionnaire (ABQ). Females reported higher levels of COVID-19-related traumatic stress than males (p = 0.009). A greater fear of getting COVID-19 was associated with significantly high IES-R scores (p < 0.0005). IES-R total score was significantly lower in the "not internetaddicted" group than that in the "internet-addicted" group (p < 0.0005). Furthermore, DES-II total score was significantly higher in the "internet-addicted" group than that in the "non internet-addicted" group (p < 0.0005). No statistically significant score differences were highlighted in the "alcohol" group. Future research with longitudinal studies and larger samples will have to clarify whether trauma, alexithymia, and dissociation can effectively predict the risk of addiction in non-clinical subjects during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Objective: The main purpose of the current study is to examine the factorial structure of the Psychological Problems (PP) scale, which is an inventory used for assessing anxious and depressive symptoms. No previous studies were found in which the dimensionality of the measure has been examined. Method: In order to test the underlying factorial structure of the scale, we performed both exploratory principal axis factor analysis and maximum likelihood robust confirmatory factor-analytic analysis on a sample of 266 international students. Parallel
analysis was also computed to identify the number of factors to take into account. Multigroup confirmatory factor analyses were performed to evaluate the factorial invariance of the scale across gender.
Results: Our results yield a bifactorial structure. One item is removed due to its double-loading, resulting in a 14-item scale. Both of the subscales’ alpha coefficients are good, with satisfying levels of adjusted item-scale correlations. Findings from the measurement invariance indicate adequate configural, metric, scalar and strict invariance across gender.
Conclusion: We conceptualize the two scales emerged from our factor analysis studies in terms of affective and psychosomatic domains of psychological problems. Despite some limitations, our findings may add new theoretical and practical implications, which are discussed also providing directions for future research.

Although a wide literature has highlighted the importance of studying the acculturation processes and its implications as a risk factor for the psychosocial adaptation, currently, very few instruments developed on ad hoc basis for adolescents are available. The present paper offers a review of the instruments for evaluating acculturation among adolescents. Based on an international literaturebased analysis, structural features, psychometric qualities, strengths and points of
weakness are indicated for each presented measure. Psychometric features, which needs to be gathered in order to advance assessment methods and techniques in this area, are discussed to help both choosing among existing measures and promoting research aimed to the development of specifically designed measures.

Spiritual well-being is a multidimensional construct that includes both existential and religious dimensions. It is associated with several indicators of well-being, as self-esteem and assertiveness. The study presents the adaptation of the Jarel Spiritual Well-Being Scale to the Italian context. The participants are 531 Italian adults. The survey includes: Hope State Scale, Adult Hope Scale, General Self-Efficacy Scale, Vision about Future Scale, and Satisfaction with Life Scale. The measures selected aim to verify the external validity of the Jarel Spiritual Well-Being Scale. Data analysis shows good psychometric properties of the Jarel Spiritual Well-Being Scale: the good external validity is confirmed by the significant correlations with the other measures, while the confirmatory factor analysis highlights some differences in the structure of the scale respect to the original version, probably due to cultural differences among US and Italian samples, that required a new
factorial solution for the Italian version of the scale.

Introduzione. Il tema della soddisfazione lavorativa assume un chiaro ruolo di rilievo nell’ambito degli studi volti alla rilevazione del benessere occupazionale. In letteratura è possibile osservare molteplici nessi associativi con numerosi comportamenti organizzativi e con variabili
personali intrinsecamente legate alla salute fisica e psicologica.
L’individuazione delle strategie di intervento più efficaci richiede una valutazione accurata. Si pone, dunque, il problema della scelta di precisi strumenti di misura. Obiettivi. Il presente contributo si propone di fornire un quadro conoscitivo generale delle caratteristiche degli strumenti disponibili per la misurazione della soddisfazione lavorativa, nella sua globalità e nei suoi aspetti specifici. Metodi. Il contributo assume la forma di una rassegna critica. Gli strumenti, sistematicamente descritti, sono presentati attraverso una classificazione in single-item, unidimensionali e multidimensionali. Ciascuna scala di misura è accompagnata da un profilo psicometrico analitico e relative caratteristiche formali. Risultati. Dall’analisi della letteratura è emersa una vasta disponibilità di strumenti, che mostrano una varietà di
caratteristiche sul piano della loro validità, attendibilità e utilità applicativa. Sono presentate 23 scale di autovalutazione, di cui 7 volte ad una rilevazione globale del costrutto e 14 multidimensionali. Alcuni tra gli strumenti indicati sono rivolti allo specifico settore sanitario, medico e infermieristico. Conclusioni. Un metodo preciso di rilevazione si pone come premessa essenziale per l’articolazione di efficaci programmi di intervento volti a prevenire e/o “curare” i fattori di rischio
lavoro-correlato. Tale rassegna può rappresentare uno strumento di orientamento alla scelta delle misure di soddisfazione lavorativa più appropriate agli specifici obiettivi di indagine.

Objective: Much research has broadly examined the dimensionality of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI; Maslach and Jackson 1981) but yielding inconsistent and conflicting results. An understanding of the factorial composition of the MBI is crucial when the instrument is used to screen for burnout syndrome. In line with this need, the present study is aimed at determining the most psychometrically sound representation of the structure of burnout among a sample of high school teachers. Method: Principal axis factoring exploratory factor analysis and least square confirmatory factor analysis were performed to identify the underlying factorial structure on a whole sample of 309 participants. Random data parallel analysis was conducted to determine the number of factors to retain. Results: According to some previous research (Densten 2001, Firth et al. 1985), findings highlighted a four-factor structure model: "Personal Accomplishment", "Strain", "Depersonalization", and "Frustration". Two items failing to meet the retention criteria were not retained, resulting in a 20-item scale. Conclusions: This emerging solution presents some differences compared to traditional structure. Emotional Exhaustion separated into two factors: "Strain", referring to feelings of being emotionally drained and burned out from work, and "Frustration", referring to feeling of stress and frustration about working with people. Limitations and need for future research avenues are discussed.

Objective: Much research and theorizing suggest that compulsive acquisition is a central component of hoarding disease. The Compulsive Acquisition Scale (CAS; Frost et al. 2002) is a self-rating scale measuring the extent to which individuals acquire and feel compelled to acquire possessions. The present study aimed to evaluate the psychometric properties of the CAS, in terms of reliability and construct validity. Method: The scale was administered to a sample of 491 non-clinical adults along with a battery of selected self-report measures. Participants were randomly divided into two subsamples. Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were performed. Support for construct validity was provided by correlations between CAS and the other administered measures. Results: Unlike the originally suggested 2-factor structure, both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses revealed an underlying 3-factor structure (Emotions, Time and Money, and Free Stuff). Our outcomes showed good subscales homogeneity; support for concurrent validity was provided by significantly positively correlations between CAS scores and the other measures of hoarding severity; convergent validity was gathered examining correlations between CAS and measures of depression, anxiety, and obsessive compulsive disorder. Conclusions: Overall, empirical results indicated promising psychometric properties of the CAS Italian version in a nonclinical sample. Limitations of the study and the need for further research are discussed.

2. La valutazione degli interventi psicosociali di Palmira Faraci
Alla ricerca di una misura della qualità/La complessità dell’oggetto da valutare/Una valutazione da attendere come l’inesorabile giorno del giudizio?/I tempi della valutazione/Gli indicatori di qualità: una traduzione empirica degli obiettivi/Valutazione interna vs valutazione esterna: antitetiche o complementari?/Gli strumenti di valutazione

Introduzione
L’ansia e la perplessità con cui spesso gli studenti di psicologia si approcciano alle discipline quantitative può incidere sul percorso accademico, in termini di rendimento, abbandono e procrastinazione (Chiesi e Primi, 2009; Onwuegbuzie, 2004).
Il presente contributo si pone l’obiettivo di valutare gli effetti dell’atteggiamento verso le materie quantitative di un gruppo di studenti di Scienze e Tecniche Psicologiche. In particolare, si ipotizza che il pregiudizio verso lo studio della Psicometria possa assumere un ruolo predittivo sulla procrastinazione dell’esame attraverso il ruolo mediatore dell’ansia.
Metodo
Hanno partecipato 142 studenti dell’Università degli Studi di Enna “Kore” (23.2% M, 76.8% F), con un’età media di 21.5 anni (DS=4.54; range: 19-60).
I dati sono stati raccolti durante la prima lezione di Psicometria attraverso un questionario composto da 12 item su scala Likert a 4 punti. Sono state applicate tecniche di analisi fattoriale esplorativa (Principal Axis Factoring) e confermativa (Maximum Likelihood). Il contributo predittivo delle variabili misurate è stato indagato attraverso analisi di regressione lineare.
Risultati
La matrice fattoriale ha evidenziato 3 scale in grado di spiegare il 48.8% della varianza totale: Competenze Matematiche come Prerequisito, Competenze Matematiche e Attitudine Insufficienti, Inutilità della Statistica, con adeguati indici di consistenza interna (da α=.60 a α=.81). L’analisi confermativa ha supportato la struttura ipotizzata con indici di adattamento accettabili (CFI=.94; SRMR=.07; RMSEA=.06). La tendenza a procrastinare l’esame è risultata significativamente predetta dall’atteggiamento verso la psicometria attraverso la mediazione delle quote di ansia legata allo studio e all’esame.
Conclusioni
Ulteriori indagini in tale direzione potrebbero rivelarsi utili ad una migliore comprensione del problema, al fine di contrastare gli effetti sfavorevoli dell’atteggiamento di pregiudizio verso lo studio delle materie quantitative in psicologia.

The present study is aimed to validate the factor structure that best represents a new instrument addressed to assess teachers’ coping strategies.
Participants were 260 high school teachers. Self-report 24-item questionnaires were administered during the class break by trained examinators.
The hypothesized four factor structure (Problem-oriented coping, Emotion-oriented coping, Seeking Support and Avoidance) was examined using confirmatory factor-analytic techniques. 
According to the fit indexes, the 4-factor model seems to be an adequate explanation of the data, suggesting that the questionnaire is comprised of four unidimensional subscales.
These findings provide evidence for the construct validity of the scale.

Relatori: Giovanni Sprini – Amelia Gangemi – Francesco Pace - Palmira Faraci
TITOLO:  Ruolo delle emozioni nel career decision-making
Il contributo che presentiamo si basa sui risultati di una indagine pilota condotta al fine di esplorare le strategie di decision-making utilizzate dai giovani in relazione alle scelte scolastiche e professionali da adottare. Nel condurre la nostra indagine facciamo ampio riferimento ad un filone di ricerche chiamato carreer decision making (Brown, 1996), emergente nel panorama scientifico degli studi sull’orientamento scolastico e professionale. Tale filone di studi, a differenza di una certa tradizione dedicata alla analisi dei fattori psicologici che entrano in gioco nelle scelte, pone la sua attenzione sul potenziamento delle abilità decisionali e quindi ha l’indubbio pregio di prevedere una ampia possibilità di cambiamento nei soggetti che vivono la scelta scolastica o professionale come un momento particolarmente delicato. In quest’ultima ottica, la ricerca che presentiamo vuole dare un contributo in direzione della promozione del benessere psicosociale: siamo infatti convinti della importanza delle azioni di orientamento nella prevenzione delle scelte errate da parte dei giovani in formazione, scelte che in molti casi sono seguite da una condizione di insoddisfazione e di disagio.
La nostra attenzione si rivolge in particolare al ruolo assunto dai processi emozionali nella percezione del rapporto tra rischi e benefici in relazione alle scelte di carriera. Faremo riferimento ad una serie di esperimenti nei quali ai soggetti verrà richiesto di indicare una opzione in merito ad alcuni “snodi” di scelta nel corso di una carriera e di valutarne il grado di rischio; cercheremo in particolare di evidenziare il ruolo che gli stati emozionali indotti (positivi vs negativi) hanno nell’influenzare la presa di decisione (Slovic, Finucane, Peters e MacGregor, 2002).

MATERNAL ATTACHMENT STYLE AND ADOLESCENTS’ SELF-ESTEEM

Manna, G., Como, M.R., Faraci, P.

Objectives
The study is aimed to verify the incidence of maternal relationship styles on adolescents’ self-esteem and their predisposition towards anxiety.
Methods
Participants: 250 mother-son/daughter couples. Adolescents aged between 14 and 18 years.
Measurements: a brief form of Bracken’s Self-Concept Scale (Manna, Mirisola, Boca, 2005); Endler Multidimensional Anxiety Scales (Endler, Edwards, Vitelli, 1996); Attachment Style Questionnaire (Feeney, Noller, Hanrahan, 1996).
Procedure: Questionnaires were collectively administered to adolescents during school lessons.  Mothers filled out the Attachment Style Questionnaire individually.
Results
Multivariate analysis were performed to verify whether maternal Secure or Insecure attachment style affect the extent of self-esteem, state and trait anxiety variables in adolescents. Secure style influences adolescents’ self-esteem with a protective function on state anxiety; Insecure style has a significant impact both on adolescents’ physical appearance and interpersonal relationships.
Conclusion
According to our findings, mother-son/daughter interaction and maternal relational support seems to affect both self-esteem and level of anxiety.

Assessing leadership styles: a contribution to the Italian validation of the Leadership Judgement Indicator (LJI)

Faraci, P.

Objectives: The present account is aimed to validate the Italian version of the Leadership Judgement Indicator (LJI; Lock, Wheeler, Burnard & Cooper, 2005), an unconventional instrument devoted to measure leaders’ judgement and preferred styles − directive, consultative, consensual, delegative − when dealing with a range of decision-making scenarios.
Methods: After forward- and back-translation, psychometric properties were estimated from 250 managers of various levels, who were asked to put themselves in the position of the leader and to rate the appropriateness of certain ways of responding to challenge.
Results: Positive significant correlations with the Agentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ; Borgogni, Petitta, Dello Russo & Mastrorilli, 2008) supported concurrent validity, whereas differences between several groups of managers, ranked in order of seniority, gathered evidence for discriminant validity. Internal consistency was satisfactory.
Conclusion: Findings highlight the Italian adaptation of the LJI has promising metrological qualities, suggesting its use in both organizational and selection settings.

The Italian adaptation of the Sensation Seeking Scale Form V (SSS-V): A contribution

Manna, G., Faraci, P., Como, M.R.

Objectives: The present study is addressed to validate the Italian version of the Sensation Seeking Scale Form V (SSS-V; Zuckerman, Eysenck & Eysenck, 1978), the most popular and widely used instrument to assess individuals’ tendency to differ with respect to their optimal levels of stimulation and arousal.
Methods: After forward- and back-translation, psychometric properties were estimated from 1530 adolescents and young students (38.8% males; 61.5% females), who were asked to give their preference using a dichotomous forced choice answer format. 
Results: Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses highlighted a 2-factor structure: Thrill and Adventure Seeking and Disinhibition. Positive significant correlations with the Impulsiveness Questionnaire (IVE; Dazzi, Pedrabissi & Santinello, 2004) supported convergent validity; differences between drug users provided evidence for discriminant validity. Internal consistency was good.
Conclusion: According to findings, the Italian adaptation of the SSS-V seems a viable measure usable for research involving protective factors for risky behavior.

AREA TEMATICA: Strumenti di misura e modelli di analisi dei dati
PRESENTAZIONE: orale
AUTORI: Francesco Pace, Dipartimento di Psicologia – Università di Palermo
Giovanni Sprini, Dipartimento di Psicologia – Università di Palermo
Palmira Faraci, Dipartimento di Psicologia – Università di Palermo
TITOLO: Valutare il livello di autoefficacia accademica e professionale
ABSTRACT BREVE: Viene presentato uno strumento finalizzato a valutare le aspettative individuali di auto-efficacia accademica e professionale. 411 studenti sono stati intervistati in merito ad aspetti quali la capacità percepita di saper selezionare le informazioni, di compiere una scelta e di persistere di fronte alle difficoltà, di valutare i propri obiettivi e le proprie aspirazioni professionali, ecc. I risultati sembrano mostrare un adeguato grado di coerenza e validità del questionario, che riteniamo possa costituire un utile strumento di valutazione degli esiti di attività orientative.
ABSTRACT
INTRODUZIONE
Nell'ambito dello studio dei processi associati alla presa di decisione relativa al percorso accademico da intraprendere e più in generale alle scelte di carriera, diversi ricercatori (Betz, Hackett, 1986; Hackett, Watkins, 1995; Lent, Brown e Hackett, 1994) attribuiscono un ruolo di fondamentale importanza alla autopercezione delle proprie abilità: una variabile, questa, di tipo prettamente cognitivo che è in genere rappresentata dal costrutto della autoefficacia. Tale costrutto, elaborato da Albert Bandura (1977, 1986) si riferisce alla “credenza circa le proprie capacità di eseguire un compito … di adottare con successo un determinato comportamento”: secondo Bandura, un soggetto che percepisce di essere capace di portare a termine con successo un certo compito aumenterà la sua motivazione alla riuscita, influenzando positivamente le performance legate a quel compito. Gli studi citati hanno dimostrato che le scelte di carriera vengono spesso marcatamente influenzate dalle aspettative individuali di auto-efficacia, a prescindere dal possesso di determinate abilità: tali contributi si sono mostrati particolarmente utili non soltanto a spiegare le diversità nei percorsi di carriera dei soggetti appartenenti alle cosiddette "categorie svantaggiate", ma anche a suggerire modalità di intervento, nelle consulenze di carriera, a favore di tutti i soggetti che si trovano nelle difficoltà della scelta formativa e professionale. Per questi motivi, all’interno degli interventi di orientamento, sempre più spesso appare cruciale la valutazione della auto-efficacia.
METODO
Il presente contributo, che si inserisce in un più ampio programma di ricerca portato avanti dal Dipartimento di Psicologia e dal Centro Orientamento e Tutorato dell'Università degli Studi di Palermo ed il cui obiettivo è di indagare circa i fattori predittivi del successo accademico, ha la finalità di varare uno strumento di valutazione della sensazione di efficacia nel compiere una scelta accademica. Abbiamo così costruito un breve questionario che mira ad indagare le convinzioni di efficacia in merito alla scelta del corso universitario. Gli aspetti valutati sono:
‰ la capacità percepita di saper selezionare le informazioni, di compiere una scelta e di persistere di fronte alle difficoltà;
‰ la capacità percepita di valutare i propri obiettivi e le proprie aspirazioni professionali;
‰ la capacità percepita di “gestire” un percorso formativo dal punto di vista dell’impegno personale.
Il questionario è costituito da 15 item contenenti delle affermazioni espresse in prima persona (ad esempio “Mi sento insicuro riguardo alla mia capacità di fare delle scelte per il mio futuro professionale”) che prevedono una scala di risposte da “Completamente in disaccordo” a “Completamente d'accordo” (misurati su scala Likert a 5 punti). E’ stato somministrato a 411 studenti frequentanti l’ultimo anno di diverse scuole superiori dei Palermo (191 maschi e 220
femmine). Sui risultati raccolti sono state condotte analisi tendenti a valutare la struttura fattoriale e la consistenza interna degli indici emergenti. Il questionario è stato inoltre risomministrato a circa 1 mese dalla sua prima somministrazione, a 171 soggetti che avevano partecipato ad un intervento di orientamento (della durata di 15 giorni circa, ispirato al modello del “bilancio di competenze”) e a 71 soggetti che non avevano partecipato a nessuna attività orientativa.
RISULTATI E CONCLUSIONI
I risultati sembrano mostrare un adeguato grado di coerenza e validità degli indici ottenuti. Inoltre è stato possibile valutare delle apprezzabili differenze, nel test-retest, in coloro i quali avevano partecipato ad attività orientative: l’attività svolta (che prevedeva sessioni dedicate alla conoscenza di sé e sessioni di documentazione sulle professioni e sui percorsi formativi) sembra avere aumentato in questi soggetti la sensazione di efficacia soprattutto in merito alla capacità di valutare i propri obiettivi professionali. Ciò a dimostrazione di come il senso di auto-efficacia accademica e professionale, lungi dall’essere un fattore temperamentale “statico”, possa essere incrementato attraverso esperienze mirate. Riteniamo infine che lo strumento presentato possa costituire un utile strumento di valutazione degli esiti di attività orientative.
BIBLIOGRAFIA
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavior change. Psichological Review, 84, 191-215.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundation of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Betz, N. E. e Hackett, G. (1986). Applications of self-efficacy theory to understanding career choice behavior. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 4, 279-289.
Hackett, G. e Watkins, C.E. (1995). Research in Career Assessment: Abilities, Interests, Decision Making and Career Development. In Walsh ed Osipow, Handbook of Vocational Psychology, theory, research and pratice (II edizione), Mahwah, NJ, Laurence Erlbaum Associates
Lent, R.W., Brown, S.D., Hackett, G. (1994). Toward a unifying social cognitive theory of career and academic interest, choice, and performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45, 79-122

AREA TEMATICA: Strumenti di Misura e Modelli di Analisi dei Dati
PRESENTAZIONE: orale
TITOLO: Costruzione e validazione di uno strumento per la valutazione dell’amabilità
AUTORI: Palmira Faraci, Dipartimento di Psicologia, Università di Palermo
Amelia Gangemi - Scuola di Specializzazione in Psicoterapia Cognitiva Associazione di
Psicologia Cognitiva (APC), Roma, Dipartimento di Psicologia,
Università di Cagliari
Alma Menna - Scuola di Specializzazione in Psicoterapia Cognitiva Associazione di Psicologia Cognitiva (APC), Roma
Carlo Dainelli - Scuola di Specializzazione in Psicoterapia Cognitiva Associazione di
Psicologia Cognitiva (APC), Roma
Ilario Mammone- Scuola di Specializzazione in Psicoterapia Cognitiva Associazione di
Psicologia Cognitiva (APC), Roma
Claudia Perrone - Scuola di Specializzazione in Psicoterapia Cognitiva Associazione di
Psicologia Cognitiva (APC), Roma
Francesco Mancini - Scuola di Specializzazione in Psicoterapia Cognitiva Associazione di Psicologia Cognitiva (APC), Roma
ABSTRACT BREVE:
Il presente contributo si pone come obiettivo la costruzione e validazione di un questionario per la misurazione del senso della propria amabilità, intesa come la capacità di attivare negli altri lo scopo dell'affetto. I risultati ottenuti dall’item analysis, dall’analisi fattoriale e dall’analisi della consistenza interna delle scale, sembrano evidenziare le buone proprietà psicometriche dello
strumento che, dopo un’adeguata standardizzazione, potrebbe essere utilizzato sia in ambito clinico che per scopo di ricerca.
ABSTRACT LUNGO:
INTRODUZIONE Il costrutto di amabilità personale gioca un ruolo centrale sia nella psicologia delle differenze individuali, che nella psicopatologia. Ciò nonostante in letteratura non esistono né
studi, anche solo esplorativi, rivolti nello specifico a tale concetto, né tantomeno strumenti di misurazione ad esso dedicati. Non è possibile neppure rintracciare studi in grado di distinguere
nettamente l’amabilità personale da costrutti quali l’autostima e l’autoefficacia. L’amabilità personale è, infatti, spesso impropriamente assimilata ai suddetti concetti, dal canto loro
ampiamente indagati e misurati. Si deve a Parisi (1978) una prima trattazione, volta non solo a esaminare nello specifico il concetto di amabilità, ma anche a fornirne una definizione finalmente
univoca e distintiva. Per quanto possa sembrare inverosimile, questa è l’unica definizione a tutt’oggi esistente in letteratura. Secondo Parisi l’amabilità può essere intesa come la capacità di
attivare negli altri lo scopo dell'affetto (senso della propria amabilità), definito come lo scopo di A 1) di stare vicino a B, 2) che B raggiunga i suoi scopi. Lo scopo dell’affetto deve essere terminale, cioè non deve essere strumentale ad altri fini. In particolare, l’adozione degli scopi altrui (Parisi e Castelfranchi, 1976) diventa affetto quando non ha sovrascopi. Ad esempio, non siamo in presenza di affetto se: 1) A vuole stare vicino a B per facilitare un approccio sessuale e/o 2) A vuole il bene
di B per perseguire scopi ulteriori. Quindi, il concetto di amabilità non va confuso con la capacità di suscitare ammirazione, stima, passione, attrazione, amore romantico, etc. In linea con tale
definizione, obiettivo del nostro lavoro è la costruzione e la validazione di uno strumento di autovalutazione sul senso della propria amabilità.
METODO La ricerca si suddivide in due fasi: nella fase pilota è stato condotto uno studio preliminare su un gruppo di 50 soggetti (età media 31,54 aa.; SD=9,32), equipartiti per sesso, cui è
stata sottoposta un’intervista strutturata sulle dimensioni naif del concetto di amabilità. Cinque valutatori indipendenti, mediante un’analisi del contenuto delle risposte ottenute, hanno individuato
le categorie più frequenti e rappresentative del concetto di amabilità. Tra le dimensioni così prodotte da ciascun esaminatore, sono state selezionate solo quelle che risultavano in comune. Si è
quindi proceduto alla trasformazione delle stesse in item e alla stesura della prima versione del questionario, costituito da 78 item, equiparatiti nelle seguenti tre sezioni di appartenenza: “Diritto” riconosciuto a se stessi di suscitare e ottenere affetto (ad es. quanto merito l’aiuto degli altri?), “Possibilità”: potenziale disponibilità da parte degli altri (ad es. quanto sarebbero disposti gli altri ad aiutarmi?) e “Realtà”: effettiva disponibilità da parte degli altri (ad es. quanto mi aiutano gli altri?). Ognuno di questi tre domini contiene 13 item riferiti a “gli altri per me importanti” e 13 item riferiti a “gli altri (non significativi)”. La successiva fase della ricerca ha visto la somministrazione del pre-test a un gruppo di 473 soggetti (età media 36,07 aa.; SD=11,88), tutti volontari, di cui il 41,2% maschi e il 58,8% femmine, reclutati nelle città di Firenze (25,16%), Roma (24,52%), Napoli (19,03%), Cosenza (9,51%), Milano (8,46%), San Benedetto del Tronto (8,46%) e Palermo (4,86%), mediante annunci affissi presso le rispettive sedi universitarie e presso le sedi della Scuola di Specializzazione in Psicoterapia Cognitiva (APC; SPC). La somministrazione è avvenuta in più sedute collettive della durata di circa 15 minuti, in ambienti tranquilli, tali da garantire che l’esecuzione individuale della prova non fosse disturbata da interferenze di alcun genere. A ogni soggetto è stato chiesto di esprimere il proprio grado di accordo rispetto a ciascun item attraverso una scala Likert a 5 livelli (range: 1 - pochissimo; 5 - moltissimo). Sui punteggi ottenuti è stata condotta un’analisi degli item al fine di valutare se le risposte degli intervistati si distribuivano in maniera adeguata. Sono state calcolate le statistiche descrittive allo scopo di scegliere gli item con la massima dispersione possibile, con una media centrale e con una distribuzione di frequenza
approssimativamente normale. In particolare, è stato utilizzato il metodo che fa uso dell’intervallo di fiducia intorno alla media teorica (Ercolani, Perugini, 1997). Inoltre, sono stati considerati buoni item quelli caratterizzati da valori di asimmetria e curtosi compresi nell’intervallo ±1. Per studiare gli aspetti legati alla dimensionalità del questionario è stato impiegato il metodo dei fattori principali. Per determinare la salienza degli item sono stati seguiti tre criteri: a) saturazioni maggiori di .50 sul primo fattore, b) eliminazione degli item con saturazioni doppie, c) un numero minimo di tre item per fattore (Gorsuch, 1983). I test di sfericità di Bartlett e di adeguatezza campionaria di Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin hanno consentito di verificare che le intercorrelazioni tra gli item erano di magnitudo sufficiente da giustificare l’analisi fattoriale. Infine, sono stati calcolati i coefficienti di correlazione item-totale per ogni sottodimensione rilevata e sono stati eliminati quegli item che mostravano correlazioni inferiori a .40 in valore assoluto, al fine di migliorare il livello di adeguatezza del questionario nel rappresentare l’atteggiamento oggetto di studio.
RISULTATI Dall’analisi degli item è emerso che 27 item non rispondevano ai criteri di accettabilità. Sui rimanenti 51 item è stata effettuata un’analisi fattoriale esplorativa (Principal Axis
Factoring) con rotazione obliqua (Promax). Per stabilire il numero di componenti da estrarre è stato utilizzato lo scree-test degli autovalori (Cattell, 1966) che ha posto in luce una struttura a cinque dimensioni in grado di spiegare il 46,65% della varianza totale. Diciasette item che non rispettavano i criteri di salienza sono stati eliminati. Il primo fattore (9 item) “Realtà/Possibilità rispetto alle persone per me importanti” (eigenvalue=7.11) spiega il 22,92% della varianza, il secondo fattore (8 item) “Possibilità rispetto agli atteggiamenti positivi degli altri non significativi” (eigenvalue=3.28) spiega il 9.64% della varianza, il terzo fattore (8 item) “Diritto” (eigenvalue=2.58) spiega il 7.60% della varianza, il quarto fattore “Realtà/Possibilità rispetto agli atteggiamenti negativi degli altri non significativi” (eigenvalue=1.76) spiega il 5.18% della varianza e il quinto fattore “Realtà rispetto agli atteggiamenti positivi degli altri non significativi” (eigenvalue=1.12) spiega il 3.31% della varianza. Dalla correlazione item-totale effettuata sulle singole scale è emerso che un solo item presentava una correlazione <.40. In seguito all’eliminazione di tale item, dall’analisi della coerenza interna risulta un grado elevato di omogeneità per ciascuna delle cinque scale (Cronbach, 1951):
.88; .87; .81; .85; .80. Tali valori sono considerati soddisfacenti (Nunnally, 1978).
CONCLUSIONI I risultati del presente studio hanno condotto alla creazione di un questionario che si compone di 33 item suddivisi in cinque sottoscale. Le analisi condotte sembrano evidenziare le
buone proprietà psicometriche dello strumento di nuova costruzione. Una successiva standardizzazione dello stesso su un campione di elevata numerosità potrebbe consentirne l’utilizzo
in ambito clinico o per fini di ricerca.
RIFERIMENTI BIBLIOGRAFICI
Cattell, R.B. (1966). The meaning and strategic use of factor analysis. In R.B. Cattell (Ed.).
Handbook of multivariate experimental psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally.
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16,
297–334.
Ercolani, A.P., Perugini, M. (1997). La misura in psicologia. LED, Milano.
Gorsuch, R.C. (1983). Factor analysis. Hilsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlhaum.
Nunnally, J.C. (1978). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Parisi, D. (1978). Affetto. Giornale Italiano di Psicologia, 5, 127-142.
Parisi, D., Castelfranchi, C. (1976). Appunti di scopistica. Istituto di Psicologia, CNR.