Roman Colonies

Novo čitanje antičkog nalazišta Osijek/Mursa zasniva se na rezultatima intenzivnih arheoloških iskopavanja koji se u provode u posljednjih 20 godi-na. Kroz pregled rezultata tih istraživanja predočeno je novo iscrtavanje to-pografije Murse, s posebnim osvrtom na položaj i izgled bedema, rastera ulica, predgrađa i gradskih groblja. Izložena je i prošlost Murse kroz razvojne faze nalazišta iščitanih iz stratigrafskih odnosa i otkrivenih struktura. Rad obuhva-ća i osvrt na razdoblje od gotovo jednog i po stoljeća koje je prethodilo osnutku kolonije, a koje je trajalo od prvog prodora rimske vojske u jugoistočnu Panoniju do osnutka kolonije. Uvod Ovaj rad namjerava prikazati rezultate arheoloških istraživanja koje Hrvatska akademija znanosti i umjetnosti (HAZU) obavlja na arheološkom nalazištu Osi-jek/Mursa od 2008. do 2019. godine. U tih je 12 godina Akademija obavila istra-živanje na četiri položaja: Trgu bana Josipa Jelačića 2008. godine, u Parku kraljice Katarine Kosače od 2013. do 2017. godine, u Ulici Matije Gupca 2016. godine, te u Sveučilišnom kampusu od 2016. do 2019. godine (sl. 1). Namjera je objaviti najvaž-nije spoznaje koje su proistekle iz tih istraživanja, ali u njihovu razradu uključiti i rezultate istraživanja koje su provele i druge institucije te privatne tvrtke, a s ciljem stvaranja što cjelovitije slike antičke Murse. Važno je istaknuti da ovom pri-likom nije moguće izložiti sve ono što je otkriveno u posljednjih petnaest godina. Stoga su u ovaj rad uvršteni samo odabrani rezultati iskopavanje dostupni u obli-ku stručnih izvještaja pohranjenih u arhivu Konzervatorskog odjela u Osijeku. Dakle, namjera je ovog rada predstaviti rezultate tih istraživanja te iznijeti novi pogled na topografiju i stratigrafiju Murse proistekao iz njih.

Resumen: El objetivo del artículo es conocer la población de la colonia
de Norba, provincia de Lusitania, a través del análisis de su onomástica. La
constitución del corpus de nomenclaturas y de antropónimos permitirá estudiar la extensión del territorio de dicha ciudad. El análisis del corpus aportará datos significativos sobre el nacimiento y la evolución de la colonia, mostrando la existencia, desde sus orígenes, de una población mixta, compuesta por colonos itálicos, peregrinos autóctonos y ciudadanos romanos de origen local.
Abstract: The purpose of this article is to use onomastics to examine the
population of the colony of Norba in the province of Lusitania. By establishing a corpus of personal names and different styles of nomenclature, it is possible to study the extent of the city’s territory. An analysis of this corpus allows significant information to emerge about the foundation and development of the colony, demonstrating the existence from the foundation of the colony onwards of a mixed population: Italian colonists, local peregrini and Roman citizens of local origin.

The foundation of colonia Augusta Firma, seat of the conuentus Astigitanus, took place within the general process of colonisation and administrative reorganisation of the territory carried out by Augustus in Hispania in the last quarter of 1st century BC. The chosen site for the new colony was a Turdetan oppidum, Astigi, located at the precise point where the Genil river –then called Singilius– opened out into a wide valley, facilitating its fording and making it navigable. Epigraphic evidence shows that the colonial deductio would have taken place between 23 and 22 BC. Military veterans from the legions XXX or XVII Classica, IV Macedonica, VI Victrix and II Pansiana were settled here, being the new citizens ascribed to the tribus Papiria.
The available archaeological evidence suggests that the new foundation would have covered an intramural area of 56 ha, although the outline of the city walls is still unclear, since they were completely dismantled after their destruction in January 913 by ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III. The inhabited area would have been even larger, since an extramural suburb, of about 2 ha, have been detected immediately outside the city, around the entrance of the uia Augusta from the west.
The analysis of the location of the remains of uiae detected so far, allows to affirm that the orientation of the urban layout was 335.4° NW, following this pattern every single structure detected inside the city, both in public and in private spaces. As for the interior layout of the city, a basic module of 100 x 100 roman feet was used, which was applied intermittently in different sectors of the colony. All the streets located intra moenia present similar morphology, paved with irregular polygonal slabs of micritic limestone, some of them with pavements on both sides –porticoed or not–. Under most of these uiae there were sewers that drained the waters into the Genil River.
Concerning the public water supply, it has recently been demonstrated that the city had a complete water supply network, with an underground aqueduct made with fistulae plumbeae, with water being distributed from the highest point of the colony, where there was a distribution device known as the arcula Terentiani.
The city had extensive forensic spaces, covering a total surface of 35,900 m². The forum coloniae, with 18,048 m², was located in the southeast quadrant of the colonia, framed by the kardo 5 - maximus and the decumanus 8. The northern sector of the forum, defined as a témenos, was presided by a temple on a podium, dated back to the Augustan period, surrounded by a porticoed space –the porticus Munatianae–, which was enclosed inside a peribolos constructed in opus quadratum. Inside the témenos, a monumental pond was unearthed in the course of the archaeological excavations carried out in the Plaza de España, in the back of the remains of the podium of the temple, confirming the close link between water and official worship. On the eastern flank of the colonial forum, a public area has been defined, with 6526 m², and another one on the western flank, with 11,326 m², inside which has been registered the presence of a temple on a podium.
As for the buildings for public spectacles, it has been possible to reconstruct the outline of the amphitheatre, located under the present bullring, with a major axis of 130 m and a minor one of 107 m. About the circus, there is a hypothesis concerning its plan, based on the analysis of several isolated structures, interpreted respectively as the remains of its meta prima, the spina and the podium of the western stands.
Numerous private spaces have been documented in the city, particularly outstanding for their rich mosaic decoration. On this matter, the recent findings in the Plaza de Armas of the Alcazar Real of the city stand out, corresponding to monumental domus, which are currently in course of excavation.
Finally, with regard to funerary spaces, in the current state of knowledge of the city, surprises the striking contrast between the remarkable wealth of archaeological evidence, and the total absence of monumental tombs.
Considering the large number of archaeological interventions carried out in Écija, this absence should be seen more as a characteristic feature of the Roman settlement than as a research gap. On the other hand, we indeed have abundant and varied epigraphic evidence, marked by the presence of stelae with semicircular headstones indicating the pedatura, as well as a large number of tombs, both burial and cremation, located in large cemetery areas surrounding the city, even extending to the opposite bank of the Genil River.

In this paper, I investigate the different strategies by different communities and individuals of using the person of the living Augustus for the creation of power relations and meanings. The examples refer to smaller poleis in the province of Macedonia. Citizens of the Roman colonies of Buthrotum and Philippi had their special ways of using Augustus, which differ from the Italian merchants in Stobi and Acanthus and from the mixed Thraco-Macedonian community of Kalindoia. In the latter case, the cult of Augustus had to fit into the patterns of the 'polis religion', while the dedications of Italians display a more 'private' character. The article emphasises the wide range of meanings of what we call the 'imperial cult' in the age of Augustus.

Mdawar 168 funerary space is composed of 50 burials. Its location along the Roman road situated between Berytus pomoerium and the far limits of the suburbium allow to relate it to a local urban context well-known by its suburbium funerary spaces. It was used from the first half of the 1st century to the end of the 4th century AD. Thanks to the site phasing, it has been possible to detect the organisation of the funerary area and the evolution of inhumation practices, from the point of view of burial typology (particularly the kind of container being used) as from the grave goods and, of course, the biological identities. This site brings a wide range of evidence that permits identifying funerary practices in the eastern Roman colonies.

This book offers a new perspective on, and approach to the study of Roman colonial foundations.  The collection of papers comes from the 2007 conference, 100 Years of Solitude, Colonies in the first century of their foundation held in St Andrews. This volume brings together studies on Roman colonies of the Eastern and the Western Empire across a period of some 400 years. The contributors address key questions about the nature of the foundation and development of colonies using literary, epigraphic, numismatic, architectural and other archaeological evidence to challenge traditional ideas of what a Roman colony is. While the papers focus on diverse colonies, several critical themes remain common to many, such as issues of patronage, changing relationships with Rome, the time it takes for the effects of the colonial status to be visible in the archaeological record, and topics relating to different levels of identity and defining population groups. Altogether, the work provides an inclusive geographical and chronological approach which allows an examination of both local and Roman perspectives, and shows that the foundation and development of a colony are not homogenous processes.

Metaphors move--and displace--people. This paper starts from this premise, focusing on how elites have deployed metaphors of water and waste to form a rhetorical consensus around the displacement of non-elite citizens in ancient Roman contexts, with reference to similar discourses in the contemporary Global North and Brazil. The notion of 'domestic displacement'-the forced movement of citizens within their own sovereign territory-elucidates how these metaphors were used by elite citizens, such as Cicero, to mark out non-elite citizens for removal from the city of Rome through colonisation programmes. In the elite discourse of the late Republican and early Augustan periods, physical proximity to and figurative equation with the refuse of the city repeatedly signals the low social and legal status of potential colonists, while a corresponding metaphor of 'draining' expresses the elite desire to displace these groups to colonial sites. The material outcome of these metaphors emerges in the non-elite demographic texture of Julius Caesar's colonists, many of whom were drawn from the plebs urbana and freedmen. An elite rationale, detectable in the writings of Cicero, Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and others, underpins the notion of Roman colonisation as a mechanism of displacement. On this view, the colony served to alleviate the founding city-Rome-of its surplus population, politically volatile elements, and socially marginalised citizens, and in so doing, populate the margins of its empire too. Romulus' asylum, read anew as an Alban colony, serves as one prototype for this model of colonisation and offers a contrast to recent readings that have deployed the asylum as an ethical example for contemporary immigration and asylum seeker policy. The invocation of Romulus' asylum in 19th century debates about the Australian penal colonies further illustrates the dangers of appropriating the asylum towards an ethics of virtue. At its core, this paper drills down into the question of Roman colonists' volition, considering the evidence for their voluntary and involuntary movement to a colonial site and challenging the current understanding of this movement as a straightforward, series of voluntary 'mass migrations'. In recognising the agency wielded by non-elite citizens as prospective colonists, this paper contends that Roman colonisation, when understood as a form of domestic displacement, opens up another avenue for coming to grips with the dynamics of 'popular' politics in the Republican period.

Der Blick auf die zweitausendjährige Geschichte von Köln beschreibt exemplarisch das wechselseitige Verhältnis von Stadtraum und Stadterinnerung, das den überregionalen Rangstreit der Städte in der frühen Neuzeit kennzeichnete. Aus Sicht der gelehrten Antiquare wie auch der städtischen Bürgerschaft ergab sich eine ungebrochene Nachfolge von der römischen Koloniestadt bis zur mittelalterlichen und frühneuzeitlichen Rheinmetropole. Der Kontinuitätsgedanke gründete auf der Materialität der Vergangenheit. Im Stadtbild bewahrte römische Bauwerke, wie die Überreste der Stadtmauer und der konstantinischen Rheinbrücke, begründeten nicht nur den Anspruch Kölns als erste Stadt am Rhein, sondern auch als erste Stadt unter den Reichsstädten des Heiligen Römischen Reiches. Welche Argumentationsstrategie im 16. und frühen 17 Jahrhundert gewählt wurde, um den ersten Rang zu behaupten, wird hier anhand von zeitgenössischen topographischen Studien erörtert.

Este trabajo pretende ofrecer una visión general sobre la inmigración de origen extrapeninsular registrada en Colonia Patricia (Córdoba, España) a partir del estudio de la documentación literaria y epigráfica disponible. Partiendo de la fundación de la ciudad romana y de su posterior conversión en colonia civium Romanorum realizaremos un análisis de aquellos individuos que, desde el siglo II a.C., llegaron a la ciudad procedentes de territorios no hispanos. Abordaremos aspectos tan importantes como las regiones y ciudades de origen de estos inmigrantes, sus ocupaciones profesionales, las causas que determinaron su movilidad y la actividad que desarrollaron en Corduba tras su llegada. Cronológicamente nuestra contribución abarca el amplio periodo temporal comprendido entre la fundación de Corduba en el siglo II a.C. por obra del cónsul M. Claudio Marcelo y el siglo V d.C., momento al que corresponde el caso de movilidad más tardío que hemos documentado.

During the first century B.C., with the rise of the Roman Empire, the Levant became the scene of cosmopolitanism where many heteroclite cultures would coexist. The new cosmopolitan society had Rome as its capital (Caput Mundi), and roads drawn up by the army linking the rest of the empire to its capital. Recent rescue excavations (since 2005) in Berytus (Beirut) and Botrys (Batroun) have revealed a considerable amount of unpublished data on populations who lived in the region during the four centuries of the Roman Empire until the early centuries of Christianity. Following an archaeo-anthropological approach, this thesis presents an assessment of eight funerary sites (n= 290) from the cities of Colonia Julia Augusta Felix Berytus and Botrys. Significantly, Botrys, unlike Berytus, did not have the status of a Roman colony. This research seeks to contribute to the history of these two cities. The purpose is to understand the populations of the past through the study of the skeletons, rituals and funerary practices as well as the organisation of funerary spaces. This study primarily reveals a cultural and biological cosmopolitanism illustrated by variability in funerary practices and in biological characteristics. These results suggest that at least two different groups or more coexisted in the Colonia Julia Augusta Felix Berytus. On the contrary, the biocultural data of Botrys skeletons reveal a less cosmopolitan city with less diversity shown on different anthropological and cultural levels. Indeed, the similarity of funerary practices, body treatments, grave goods and the organisation of the funerary space and biological homogeneity are indisputable in Botrys. Comparative analysis between Berytus and Botrys highlighted an existing biological heterogeneity at different scales between individuals of both cities. However, this diversity is contradicted by the homogeneity of the females of both cities during the 2th and the 4th century A. D.

Keywords : Berytus, Botrys, Levant, roman period, roman colony, funerary practices, religious beliefs, archaeoanthropology, archaeothanatology, morphometry, non metric anatomical traits, population health, spatial distribution of burial practices.

On the basis of «The Achievements of the Divine Augustus» the author analyses the significance of the legacy of populares, one of the main political movements in the Late Republic, in the politics of Emperor Augustus. The main features of this political movement, in the opinion of modern researchers, were their demagogic political style, their assertion of the sovereignty of Roman people and their protection of economic interests of the lower classes. In the RGDA there is no mention of the odious political methods of the populares that entailed conflicts and unrest but the text significantly dwells on the tribunician power granted to Augustus. In the Late Republic the tribunician power served as the basis of the populares’ political method. The ideology reflected in the RGDA entrusts the Roman people with an important role in the public administration and describes the Roman people as a full-fledged partner of the Senate, however it lacks the populares’ contraposition of the Roman people to the Senate (or to the oligarchy controlling the Senate). The populares’ legacy is particularly apparent in the RGDA chapters describing Augustus’ expenses in favor of the Roman people such as the organisation of various social measures, shows and public building. Augustus inherited from the populares of the Late Republic the idea of Roman plebs as a source of political power and of satisfaction of its interest as a mechanism of maintaining political stability, but discarded those of populares slogans and methods that had a conflict potential.

RESUMEN: En este trabajo de investigación contemplo como objeto de estudio la evolución histórica de la antigua Asido, actual Medina Sidonia (Cádiz), desde sus inicios como poblado, remontable al siglo VIII a.C., hasta su conversión en colonia de ciudadanos romanos, probablemente entre 15 y 14 a.C. Incluyo en él estudios concretos, centrados en la concesión del derecho latino por parte de César, la transformación en colonia romana por la actuación de Augusto, la sociedad asidonense, la economía de Asido y su territorio, la integración de la colonia en el mapa administrativo romano y en la red de comunicaciones terrestres estructurada por el Estado romano en la Bética y las manifestaciones religiosas, tanto precristianas como cristianas. Además, incorporo tres estudios muy concretos, dedicados al topónimo Asido, al epígrafe CIL II, 1305, y a la evolución de Asido durante los siglos IV y V d.C., época durante la cual esta ciudad alcanzó una gran importancia como centro de poder.

ABSTRACT: In this Minor Thesis, I study the historical evolution of the ancient Asido, the current Medina Sidonia (province of Cadiz), from its beginning as a small village likely built in the 8th century BC, until its transformation into a Roman colony, probably in 15-14 BC. I include particular studies on a) the grant to Asido of the Latin right by César, b) the transformation of the city into a Roman colony during the reign of Augustus, c) the society of Asido, d) the economy of the city and its territory, e) the integration of the colony in the Roman administration and in the road network that the Roman Empire deployed in Baetica, f) the pre-Christian and Christian religious expressions. I also incorporate three very specific studies; the first on the name of the city, the second concerning the inscription CIL II, 1305, and the third about the historical evolution of the Asido during the 4th and 5th centuries AD, a period in which this city reached a great importance as a centre of power.

La colonia romana di Augusta Taurinorum è all'origine di Torino. Dopo qualche parola per illustrare la fondazione, ed aver fornito riferimenti bibliografici relativi, si discutono la proposte, quella da me fatta nel 2012 e altre seguenti, che indicano o pretendono datazioni archeoastronomiche. Si presterà particolare attenzione agli scritti dello storico tedesco Heinrich Nissen sulla planimetria della città romana. Il suo Das Templum del 1869 ci porterà ad analizzare che cosa è lo spazio inaugurato-detto templum-dove i Romani interrogavano il divino. Nel libro di Nissen troviamo infatti la città immaginata come un templum, con il decumano-la via principale della città romana-orientato verso il sorgere del sole il giorno di fondazione. Vedremo anche come Nissen associ tale Dies Natalis ad una festa. Nissen pare essere il primo ad aver associato decumano, sorgere del sole, feste del calendario romano. Il Das Templum venne criticato in passato, con critiche ben fondate, che dicono che la città non è un templum. Tutto ciò è stato dimenticato. Nel 2007, un articolo di Giulio Magli, che ripropone senza citare Nissen il decumano orientato col sorgere del sole un dì di festa, ha portato ad un revival di ipotesi archeoastronomiche sulla città di Torino. Si discuteranno anche le proposte relative al giorno, nella lunga sequenza legale e religiosa caratterizzante il processo di fondazione di una colonia, che i coloni celebravano come Dies Natalis. Si citerà anche una lezione di Friedrich Nietzsche. Di fatto, il lavoro di Nissen e poi di Nietzsche sono i primi studi di filologia Greca e Latina sull'orientazione solare che coinvolgano puntualmente, in particolare quello di Nissen, gli scritti degli agrimensori romani. Non si parlerà solo di orientamenti solari e di archeoastronomia. Quando necessario si introdurranno delle note per chiarire il contesto. Si discuterà una datazione della città alle None di Febbraio. Per la fondazione di Torino e la sua pretesa datazione al 30 gennaio 9 a.C., giorno di dedica dell'Ara Pacis a Roma, si sottolineerà come questa datazione insista su una cosa non vera relativa all'altare. L'Ara Pacis a Roma non è stata decretata per la fine delle guerre alpine, ma per il ritorno di Augusto dalle province di Spagna e Gallia. Per la conclusione delle guerre alpine, il senato decretò il Trofeo delle Alpi.

During the first century B.C., with the rise of the Roman Empire, the Levant became the scene of cosmopolitanism where many heteroclite cultures would coexist. This cosmopolitan Empire had Rome as its capital (Caput Mundi) and roads drawn up by the army linked the rest of the empire to its capital. Following an archaeo-anthropological approach, this research presentation aims to reveal an assessment of eight funerary sites (N= 290) from the cities of Berytus (Beirut) and Botrys (Batroun). Botrys, unlike Berytus, did not have the status of a Roman colony. The main purpose is to understand the populations who lived in the region during the four centuries of the Roman Empire through the study of the skeletons, biological identities, rituals and funerary practices, as well as the organization of suburban funerary spaces and the population mobility in the classical Near East.

La actividad colonial desarrollada por César y Augusto debe considerarse como uno de los hitos fundamentales de la historia de Roma. Su extensión al ámbito provincial transformó radicalmente la realidad existente mediante el establecimiento de un nuevo modelo basado en la civitas. El estudio de la documentación literaria, numismática y epigráfica permite reconstruir el contexto sociológico de las nuevas fundaciones, donde existió una convergencia entre la población emigrante y la oligarquía indígena.

This article deals with those cities in Anatolia, which Caesar and Augustus founded colonies in, and it considers the question of whether Greek poleis subsisted alongside the colonies. +++ With respect to the Caesarian colonization proof can be furnished – partly by referring to ancient sources hitherto disregarded – for the peregrine population remaining constituted in self-governing communities in at least two of four cities: Sinope and Heraclea Pontica. Regarding the eleven cities of the Augustan colonization at least Iconium and Ninica Claudiopolis were double communities, which minted coins with both Greek and Latin legends. +++  Perhaps this form of settlement and constitution was chosen mainly in places, where Roman colonists only represented a small minority. Therefore they were neither in the position to ensure an efficient administration of the whole community nor were they able to assert themselves against the indigenous inhabitants, who were already not well-disposed towards the Romans for expropriations incurred and who were ready to defy Roman authorities in case of deprivation of their self-governance respectively their civil rights.

This article discusses a passage of Apppian (Lib. 136) stating that the founder of  the new Roman colony of Carthage had been Octavian and not Caesar, as normally deduced by the chronology of a refoundation 102 years after the destruction of 146 BC followed by Solin and by Appian himself. A closer look to the passage, though, reveals a clear derivation from the autobiography of Augustus and must therefore been considered correct. It follows then that Octavian knew about his father's project about Carthage only after becoming consul in August 43 BC, but colonists were sent out only under the triumvirate. Hence the appellation "Concordia" that Carthage shares with other triumviral foundations. Nevertheless, the connection with Caesar remained strong and this explains the discrepant chronology

Este trabajo pretende ofrecer una visión general sobre la inmigración de origen extrapeninsular domiciliada en Augusta Emerita a partir del análisis de la documentación epigráfica de la colonia. Estudiaremos aspectos como las regiones y ciudades de origen de estos inmigrantes, sus ocupaciones profesionales, las causas que determinaron su movilidad y la actividad que desarrollaron en Augusta Emerita tras su llegada. Cronológicamente nuestra contribución abarca el periodo comprendido entre la fundación de la colonia en el año 25 a.C. y la promulgación de la Constitutio Antoniniana a comienzos del siglo III d.C.

Este trabajo aborda el estudio de la inmigración de origen extrapeninsular domiciliada en Tarraco, capital de la provincia Citerior, a partir del análisis de sus evidencias epigráficas. Estudiaremos aspectos como las regiones y ciudades de origen de estos inmigrantes, sus ocupaciones profesionales, las causas que determinaron su movilidad y el papel que jugaron en Tarraco tras su establecimiento en la ciudad. Cronológicamente nuestra contribución abarca el periodo comprendido entre la fundación de la colonia en el último tercio del siglo I a.C. y la promulgación de la Constitutio Antoniniana a comienzos del siglo III d.C.

RESUMEN: El objetivo fundamental de este trabajo es contribuir a la evaluación del nivel de participación de los indígenas de la Hispania Ulterior Baetica, en la constitución de las elites de las colonias romanas en él fundadas. Para ello, me centro en la identificación de los individuos originarios de la península Ibérica (Hispani) y su diferenciación de los venidos de Italia y sus descendientes (Hispanienses), fundamentalmente mediante el análisis antroponímico. El resultado es la constatación de distintos niveles de integración en cada caso, en función de las distintas evoluciones históricas sufridas por cada una de estas comunidades antes de su transformación en colonias romanas.

ABSTRACT: The main target of this work is to contribute to the evaluation of the level of indigenous participation in the setting up of the elites in the Roman colonies founded in Hispania Ulterior Baetica. With this aim, I focus my attention on the identification of the autochthonous individuals from the Iberian Peninsula (Hispani) and of those who arrived from Italy and their descendants (Hispanienses), mainly by means of the name analysis. The result is the documentation of several levels of integration in each case, according to the different historical evolutions followed by each one of these communities before its transformation into Roman colonies.