Solar PV System Sizing PDF

UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
FEE 560: FINAL YEAR PROJECT

SOLAR PV SYSTEM SIZING
PROJECT 101
DONE BY:
BOTTO VICTOR EMMANUEL
REG. NO. F17/8231/2004
SUPERVISOR: DR. CYRUS WEKESA

EXAMINER: MR. N.S WALKADE
PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR
OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC
ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI.
MAY, 2009
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND INFORMATION
ENGINEERING
DEDICATION
This project is dedicated to my dad and mum, Ephraim and Edith, my sister Susan ,
my brother Amos and the Muritu’s (dad, mom, Shiro, Muthoni and Brian) who
have been my second family. Your love, care and support throughout my life means
the world to me.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost I would like to thank God for bringing me this far. I would be
nowhere without Him.
I extend my heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Cyrus Wekesa, my supervisor.
My most heartfelt appreciation to the staff at Botto-Solar Ltd for their support
during my project and for availing all the information necessary for the successful
completion of this project.
I would like to take to this opportunity to give special thanks to all my classmates.
Your continual support and trust in my abilities has not gone unnoticed.
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Table of Contents
DEDICATION………………………………………………………………………………….ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT……………………………………………………………………..iii
List of figures………………………………………………………………………………….vii
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………..viii
CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Objectives ............................................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Project overview ................................................................................................................... 2
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................ 4
2.1 Photovoltaic module ............................................................................................................. 4
2.1.1 Photovoltaic module performance ................................................................................. 5
2.1.2 Factors affecting photovoltaic module performance ..................................................... 6
2.1.3 The photovoltaic effect .................................................................................................. 8
2.1.4 Photovoltaic array .......................................................................................................... 8
2.1.5 Electrical characteristics of PV modules ....................................................................... 8
2.1.6 Efficiency (η) ................................................................................................................. 9
2.1.7 Advantages and disadvantages of using photovoltaic systems.................................... 10
2.2 Batteries .............................................................................................................................. 13
2.2.1 Battery Types and Classifications................................................................................ 13
2.2.2 Lead-Acid Batteries ..................................................................................................... 14
2.2.3 Nickel-Cadmium Batteries........................................................................................... 16
2.2.4 Specifying Batteries ..................................................................................................... 16

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2.3 Charge Controllers .............................................................................................................. 18
2.3.1 Types of controllers ..................................................................................................... 19
2.3.2 Blocking Reverse Current................................................................................................ 20
2.3.3 Preventing Overcharge................................................................................................. 20
2.3.4 Control Set Points vs. Temperature ............................................................................. 21
2.3.5 Control Set Points vs. Battery Type............................................................................. 21
2.3.6 Low Voltage Disconnect (LVD).................................................................................. 22
2.3.7 Overload Protection ..................................................................................................... 23
2.4 Inverters .............................................................................................................................. 23
2.4.1Characteristics............................................................................................................... 23
2.4.2 Installation.................................................................................................................... 26
CHAPTER 3: DESIGN................................................................................................................. 27
3.1 Photovoltaic system sizing.................................................................................................. 27
3.2 Photovoltaic system sizing worksheet instructions............................................................. 27
3.2.1 Estimating the Electric Load........................................................................................ 27
3.2.2 Specifying an Inverter.................................................................................................. 29
3.2.3 Sizing and specifying a battery .................................................................................... 30
3.2.4 Sizing and Specifying an Array ................................................................................... 32
3.2.5 Specifying a Controller ................................................................................................ 35
3.2.6 Summary of Steps for sizing........................................................................................ 36
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS.............................................................................................................. 39
4.1 Sample System Problem ..................................................................................................... 39
4.2 Stand-Alone PV System parameters................................................................................... 39
4.3 Sizing Worksheet Calculations ........................................................................................... 40
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4.2 Sizing for Other Areas ........................................................................................................ 43
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 44
5.1 Problems encountered......................................................................................................... 44
5.2 Recommendations............................................................................................................... 44
5.3 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 45
APPENDIX................................................................................................................................... 46
APPENDIX A............................................................................................................................... 46
A1. Current situation of solar energy utilization in Kenya....................................................... 46
A.2 Available data sources on the solar energy potential......................................................... 46
A.2.1 World Radiation Data Centre (WRDC) ...................................................................... 46
A.2.2 Solar Wind Energy Resources Assessment (SWERA) Data Base ............................. 48
APPENDIX B ............................................................................................................................... 50
B.1 Manufactures Data Sheets.................................................................................................. 50
APPENDIX C…………………………………………………………………………………...54
REFERENCE……………………………………………………………………...56
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List of figures
Fig 1.1 Stand-Alone PV System…………………………………………………………....2
Fig 2.1 Solar Cell…………………………………………………………………………...4
Fig.2.2 Typical Current Voltage Curve of a Photovoltaic Module…………………….…..6
Fig 2.3 Effects of Decreased Insolation Effect and Cell Temperature………………….....7
Fig 2.4 (a) Series Controller (b) Shunt Controller………………………………………...19
Fig 3.1 Graph of Days of Usable Storage against Peak Sun Hours…………………….....32
Fig 3.2 50W Module Specification……………………………………………………......34
Fig A.1: Average Daily Radiation Measured at 15 Meteorological Stations in Kenya by
Month of Year in the Period 1964-1993………….………………47
Fig A.2: Calculated Average Figures of Daily Global Horizontal Solar Radiation
in Kenya 1985-1991………………………………49
Fig C.1 MS Excel Worksheet calculations for Table 3.1 and 3.2…………………....…...54
Fig C.2 MS Excel Worksheet calculations for Tables 3.3 and 3.4…………….………....55
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ABSTRACT
Stand-alone PV (Photovoltaic System) systems operate reliably and are the best option for many
remote applications around the world. Obtaining reliable long-term performance from a PV
system requires consistent sizing calculations and knowledge of PV performance, use of good
engineering practices when installing equipment and developing and following a complete
operation and maintenance plan.
This document presents recommended design practices for Stand-Alone photovoltaic (PV)
systems. The different components which comprise the PV systems are described and their
characteristics enumerated. This information provides a base for the design.
The solar PV design technique takes into consideration estimated load requirements as the basis
for sizing the system. The design technique is done through Worksheets. The calculations are
simple and straight-forward. A practical sample sizing problem is presented and is completed
through the worksheets. System component parameters have been obtained from manufacturer’s
data sheets which have been documented.
It is important to note that the solar radiation plays a great role in determining the system size.
As seen from the result section, locations with low solar radiation require bigger system size to
compensate for low sun hours.
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CHAPTER 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Photovoltaic (PV) energy generating systems (or PV systems) convert the sun’s energy directly
into electricity using state-of-the-art semiconductor materials. PV systems produce clean, reliable
energy without consuming fossil fuels and are used in a wide variety of applications. Some are
called a “stand-alone or off-grid” system, which means they are the sole source of power to a
home, water pump or other load. Stand-alone systems can be designed to run with or without
battery backup. Remote water pumps are often designed to run without battery backup, since
water pumped out of the ground during daylight hours can be stored in a holding tank for use
anytime. In contrast, stand-alone home power systems often store energy generated during the
day in a battery bank for use at night. Stand-alone systems are often cost-effective when
compared to alternatives such as utility line extensions.
Other PV systems are called “grid-connected “systems. These work to supplement existing
electric service from a utility company. When the amount of energy generated by a grid-
connected PV system exceeds the customer’s loads, excess energy is exported to the utility,
turning the customer’s electric meter backward. Conversely, the customer can draw needed
power from the utility when energy from the PV system is insufficient to power the building’s
loads. Under this arrangement, the customer’s monthly electric utility bill reflects only the net
amount of energy received from the electric utility.
The high initial costs of PV installation calls for a means of sizing these systems to be able to
match projected loads and applications. Sizing matches the user’s energy needs with the
appropriate solar systems components.
Typical applications of PV in use today include;

• Stand-alone power systems for cottages and remote residences,
• Remote telecommunication sites for utilities and the military,
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• Water pumping for farmers,
• Emergency call boxes for highways and college campuses,
• Street Lighting
• Grid Connected supply of Electricity
• Navigational aides for the Coast Guard
PV Array
Charge Battery Inverter AC Loads

Controller bank
DC Loads
Figure 1.1 Stand-Alone PV System
1.2 Objectives
The main objective of this project is to provide a means of sizing Photovoltaic Systems
supplying Stand Alone AC and DC loads. The sizing includes components which comprise the
photovoltaic system, namely;
• Photovoltaic Module
• Charge Controller
• Battery Storage
• Inverter
1.3 Project overview

The Solar PV design has been split up into four chapters consisting of Literature review, System
Design, Results and Recommendations.
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• Chapter 2 details any relevant theory which is crucial in further understanding of the
design sections.
• Chapter 3 details the design and steps involved in sizing the PV components.
• Chapter 4 presents a practical sizing sample problem.
• Finally Chapter 5 includes recommendations and conclusion for the design technique
presented
The project report aims at providing an in-depth and accurate analysis and of PV system design
and relevant theory. It is hoped that enough detail has been provided to allow a good
understanding of the design.
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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Photovoltaic module
A photovoltaic module is a group of cells, wired in series. The electrical output from a single cell
is small; so multiple cells are connected in series and encapsulated (usually behind glass) to form
a module. PV modules are thus the principle building blocks of a PV system, and any number of
modules can be connected to give the desired electrical output in a PV array or system. This
modular structure is a considerable advantage of PV systems, because new panels can be added
to an existing system as and when required. [1]
Figure 2.1 Solar Cell
There are four advanced thin film technologies for making PV modules. Their names are derived
from the active cell materials:
1. Cadmium telluride (CdTe),
2. Copper indium diselenide (CIS),
3. Amorphous silicon (a-Si)
4. Thin film silicon (thin film-Si).
Amorphous silicon is in commercial production while the other three technologies are slowly
reaching the market. Thin film modules are made directly on the substrate, without the need for
the intermediate solar cell fabrication step.
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2.1.1 Photovoltaic module performance
The total energy output wattage of a photovoltaic module equals its output voltage multiplied by
its operating current. Unlike voltage sources such as batteries which produce current at relatively
constant voltage, photovoltaic modules may produce current over a wide range of voltages.
The output characteristics of a module are characterized by a performance curve called an I-V
Curve which shows the relation between current and voltage output. An example is shown in
Fig.2.2. Voltage (V) is plotted along the horizontal axis while Current (I) is plotted along the
vertical axis. Typical I-V curves are given for the conditions of 1000 watts per square meter of
sunlight and 25degrees C (77 degrees F) cell temperature. 1000 watts per square meter is often
referred to as one ‘Peak Sun.’ There are three significant points of interest on the I-V curve;
1. Maximum Power Point (MPP) - is labelled Vmp, Imp on the I-V curve. This is the
operating point at which the maximum output will be produced by the module at
operating conditions indicated above.
2. The Open circuit Voltage, (Voc) - is the maximum potential voltage achieved when no
current is being drawn from the module. As shown by the figure the open circuit voltage
(VOC) occurs when there is no current passing through the cell.
V (at I=0) = VOC
VOC is also the maximum voltage difference across the cell for a forward-bias sweep in
the power quadrant.
VOC= VMAX for forward-bias power quadrant
3. The Short Circuit Current, (Isc) - Is the maximum current output which could be
reached by the module under the conditions of a circuit with no resistance. The short
circuit current ISC corresponds to the short circuit condition when the impedance is low
and is calculated when the voltage equals 0.
I (at V=0) = ISC
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ISC occurs at the beginning of the forward-bias sweep and is the maximum current value
in the power quadrant. For an ideal cell, this maximum current value is the total current
produced in the solar cell by photon excitation.
ISC = IMAX = Iℓ for forward-bias power quadrant
Figure 2.2 Typical Current Voltage Curve of a Photovoltaic Module
2.1.2 Factors affecting photovoltaic module performance

1. Load Resistance- A load or battery will determine at what voltage the module will
operate. For example, in a nominal 12 volt battery system, the battery voltage is usually
between 11.5 and 14 volts. In order for the battery to charge, the modules must operate at
slightly higher voltage than the battery.
If a load’s resistance is well matched to a module’s I-V curve, the module will operate at
or near the maximum power point, resulting in the highest possible efficiency. As the
load resistance increases, causing the photovoltaic module to operate at a voltage higher
than the maximum power point, module efficiency decreases. Efficiency also decreases at
voltages less than at the maximum power point.
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2. Intensity of Sunlight- a photovoltaic module’s output is proportionally affected by the
intensity of solar radiation to which it is exposed. More intense sunlight will result in
greater module output. Lower sunlight levels result in lower current output. Voltage is
not changed appreciably by variations of sunlight intensity.
3. Cell Temperature- Photovoltaic modules operate less efficiently at higher cell

temperatures. The operating voltage drops with increasing cell temperature. Heat, in this
case may be thought of as an electrical resistance to flow of electrons. Effective current
output may be significantly reduced decreased if the maximum power point of a module
or array shifts to a much lower voltage than the operating voltage of the load. Generally a
module will lose approximately ½% efficiency per degree centigrade of temperature rise
between 80 and 90 degrees C. [1]
Figure 2.3 Effects of Decreased Insolation Effect and Cell Temperature
4. Shading- Even partial shading of photovoltaic modules will result in dramatic reduction
of module’s output. One completely shaded cell can reduce this module’s output by as
much as 80%. The effect of partial shading of three cells cuts the modules output in half
when operating at 15 volts.
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2.1.3 The photovoltaic effect
The basic unit of a photovoltaic system is the photovoltaic cell. It generates electricity because
the cell’s materials give it an electric potential and are sensitive to sunlight. The photovoltaic cell
consists of thin layers of semi conducting material, prepared as wafers or films, most commonly
made from silicon cells which are one of the earth’s most abundant elements. Silicon’s natural
properties as a semiconductor of electricity make it an ideal material for photovoltaic cells. Its
electric properties are modified by two other elements, boron and phosphorus, to create a
permanent imbalance in the molecular charge of the material.
A solar cell is made up of two layers of semiconductor material. Two regions are created, a
positively charged region and a negatively charged region. These layers create an electric
potential within the cell. Light energy striking the cells free electrons from some of the atoms in
the cell material. The cell’s internal potential pushes these free electrons toward one of the
layers. When one end of a wire is attached to this layer and the other end is attached to the
second layer, the free electrons will flow through the wire, creating an electric current. [2]
2.1.4 Photovoltaic array

A photovoltaic array is a linked collection of photovoltaic modules, which are in turn made of
multiple interconnected solar cells. The power that one module can produce is seldom enough to
meet requirements of a home or a business, so the modules are linked together to form an array.
Most PV arrays use an inverter to convert the DC power produced by the modules into
alternating current that can plug into the existing infrastructure to power lights, motors, and other
loads. The modules in a PV array are usually first connected in series to obtain the desired
voltage; the individual strings are then connected in parallel to allow the system to produce more
current. Solar arrays are typically measured by the electrical power they produce, in watts,
kilowatts, or even megawatts.
2.1.5 Electrical characteristics of PV modules

The industry standard against which all PV modules are rated and can be compared is called
Standard Test Conditions (STC). STC is a defined set of laboratory test conditions which
approximate conditions under which PV modules might be used. The same standard is also used
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to evaluate potential installation locations, since it is the basis for Insolation values. STC
includes three factors:
1. Irradiance (sunlight intensity or power), in Watts per square meter falling on a flat
surface. The measurement standard is 1 kW per sq. m. (1,000 Watts/m2)
2. Air Mass, refers to “thickness” and clarity of the air through which the sunlight passes to
reach the modules (sun angle affects this value). The standard is 1.5.
3. Cell temperature, which will differ from ambient air temperature. STC defines cell
testing temperature as 25 degrees C. [2]
2.1.6 Efficiency (η)
Efficiency is the ratio of the electrical power output Pout, compared to the solar power input, Pin,
into the PV cell. Pout can be taken to be PMAX since the solar cell can be operated up to its
maximum power output to get the maximum efficiency.
Pin is taken as the product of the irradiance of the incident light, measured in W/m2 or in suns
(1000 W/m2), with the surface area of the solar cell [m2]. The maximum efficiency (ηMAX) found
from a light test is not only an indication of the performance of the device under test, but, like all
of the I-V parameters, can also be affected by ambient conditions such as temperature and the
intensity and spectrum of the incident light. For this reason, it is recommended to test and
compare PV cells using similar lighting and temperature conditions.
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Table2.1 PV Module Characteristics for Standard Technologies
2.1.7 Advantages and disadvantages of using photovoltaic systems

Advantages
Reliability-Even in harsh climates, photovoltaic systems have proven their reliability. Often,
photovoltaic systems are chosen for systems that must remain operational at all times.
Photovoltaic systems may prevent costly or dangerous power failures in situation where
continuous operation is critical
Low Maintenance Cost- It is expensive to transport materials and personnel to remote areas for
equipment maintenance. Since photovoltaic systems require only periodic inspection and
occasional maintenance, these costs are usually less than with conventionally fuelled equipment
alternatives.
Scaleable and modular- From providing milliwatts to power a calculator to acres of panels
providing megawatts for grid connected supply on a commercial building roof or field, solar
power products can be deployed in many sizes and configurations and can be installed quickly
and almost anywhere in the world. As a distributed generation option, transmission and
distribution costs are reduced.
Universal Applications- Solar PV is the only renewable energy technology that can be installed
on a truly global scale because of its versatility and because it generates power under virtually all
conditions, i.e. even in overcast light conditions
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Peak Shaving- The output of solar systems typically correlates with periods of high electricity
demand where air conditioning systems create peak demands during hot sunny days. PV can
shave peak-load demand, when energy is most constrained and expensive and therefore can
move the load off the grid and alleviate the need to build new peak generating capacity.
Reliability- With no fuel supply required and no moving parts, solar power systems are among
the most reliable electric power generators, capable of powering the most sensitive applications,
from space satellites to microwave stations in the mountains and other remote harsh
environments. Solar panels typically carry warranties of 20 years or more.
Dual use- Solar panels are expected to increasingly serve as both a power generator and the skin
of the building. Like architectural glass, solar panels can be installed on the roofs or facades of
residential and commercial buildings.
Environmentally safe- Solar power systems produce no air or water emissions or greenhouse
gases and produce no noise. Solar systems are generally far safer than other distributed energy
systems, such as diesel generators and as such are the most suitable technology for urban on-site
generation. PV is the only commercially available renewable technology generation option for
urban areas.
Disadvantages
Cost- Photovoltaic systems have a high initial cost. Each installation must be evaluated from an
economic perspective and compared to existing alternatives. If the initial cost of the photovoltaic
systems decreases and the cost of conventional fuel sources increases, photovoltaic systems will
become more economically competitive.
Variability of Available Solar Radiation- Weather can adversely affect the power output of
any PV system. If there is no sunshine there is no power.
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Energy Storage- Some photovoltaic systems use batteries for storing energy which will be used
at a later time. The battery increases the system’s size and cost can make the system more
complex.
Education- Photovoltaic systems use a new technology with which many people are unfamiliar.
Few people understand its applicability. This lack of information slows market and technological
growth.
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2.2 Batteries
Batteries chemically store direct current electrical energy for later use, during periods of cloudy
weather and when a portable power source is desired. Since a photovoltaic system‘s power
output varies throughout any given day, the battery storage system can provide a relatively
constant power source, even when the photovoltaic system is disconnected for repair and
maintenance or producing minimal power in periods of reduced insolation.
2.2.1 Battery Types and Classifications

Many types and classifications of batteries are manufactured today, each with specific design and
performance characteristics suited for particular applications. Each battery type or design has its
individual strengths and weaknesses. In PV systems, lead-acid batteries are most common due to
their wide availability in many sizes, low cost and well understood performance characteristics.
In a few critical, low temperature applications nickel-cadmium cells are used, but their high
initial cost limits their use in most PV systems. There is no “perfect battery” and it is the task of
the PV system designer to decide which battery type is most appropriate for each application.
In general, electrical storage batteries can be divided into two major categories, primary and
secondary batteries.
• Primary Batteries- Primary batteries can store and deliver electrical energy, but cannot
be recharged. Typical carbon-zinc and lithium batteries commonly used in consumer
electronic devices are primary batteries. Primary batteries are not used in PV systems
because they cannot be recharged.
• Secondary Batteries- A secondary battery can store and deliver electrical energy, and
can also be recharged by passing a current through it in an opposite direction to the
discharge current. Common lead-acid batteries used in automobiles and PV systems are
secondary batteries. Table 1 lists common secondary battery types and their
characteristics which are of importance to PV system designers. A detailed discussion of
each battery type follows.
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2.2.2 Lead-Acid Batteries
There are several types of lead-acid batteries manufactured. The following sections describe the
types of Lead-acid batteries commonly used in PV systems;
Lead-Antimony Batteries
Lead-antimony batteries are a type of lead-acid battery which use antimony (Sb) as the primary
alloying element with lead in the plate grids. The use of lead-antimony alloys in the grids has
both advantages and disadvantages. Advantages include providing greater mechanical strength
than pure lead grids, and excellent deep discharge and high discharge rate performance. Lead-
antimony grids also limit the shedding of active material and have better lifetime than lead-
calcium batteries when operated at higher temperatures.
Disadvantages of lead-antimony batteries are a high self-discharge rate, and as the result of
necessary overcharge, require frequent water additions depending on the temperature and amount
of overcharge. Most lead-antimony batteries are flooded, open vent types with removable caps to
permit water additions. They are well suited to application in PV systems due to their deep cycle
capability and ability to take abuse, however they do require periodic water additions. The
frequency of water additions can be minimized by the use of catalytic recombination caps or
battery designs with excess electrolyte reservoirs. The health of flooded, open vent lead-
antimony batteries can be easily checked by measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte with
a hydrometer. Lead-antimony batteries with thick plates and robust design are generally
classified as motive power or traction type batteries, are widely available and are typically used
in electrically operated vehicles where deep cycle long-life performance is required.
Lead-Calcium Batteries
Lead-calcium batteries are a type of lead-acid battery which uses calcium (Ca) as the primary
alloying element with lead in the plate grids. Like lead-antimony, the use of lead-calcium alloys
in the grids has both advantages and disadvantages. Advantages include providing greater
mechanical strength than pure lead grids, a low self-discharge rate, and reduced gassing
resulting in lower water loss and lower maintenance requirements than for lead-antimony
batteries. Disadvantages of lead-calcium batteries include poor charge acceptance after deep
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discharges and shortened battery life at higher operating temperatures and if discharged to
greater than 25% depth of discharge repeatedly.
• Flooded Lead-Calcium, Open Vent- Often classified as stationary batteries, these

batteries are typically supplied as individual 2 volt cells in capacity ranges up to and over
1000 ampere-hours. Flooded lead-calcium batteries have the advantages of low self
discharge and low water loss, and may last as long as 20 years in stand-by or float
service. In PV applications, these batteries usually experience short lifetimes due to
sulfation and stratification of the electrolyte unless they are charged properly.
• Flooded Lead-Calcium, Sealed Vent- Primarily developed as 'maintenance free'

automotive starting batteries, the capacity for these batteries is typically in the range of
50 to 120 ampere-hours, in a nominal 12 volt unit. Like all lead-calcium designs, they are
intolerant of overcharging, high operating temperatures and deep discharge cycles. They
are “maintenance free” in the sense that you do not add water, but they are also limited by
the fact that you cannot add water which generally limits their useful life. This battery
design incorporates sufficient reserve electrolyte to operate over its typical service life
without water additions. These batteries are often employed in small stand-alone PV
systems such as in rural homes and lighting systems, but must be carefully charged to
achieve maximum performance and life. While they are low cost, they are really designed
for shallow cycling, and will generally have a short life in most PV applications.
Lead-Antimony/Lead-Calcium Hybrid
These are typically flooded batteries, with capacity ratings of over 200 ampere-hours. A common
design for this battery type uses lead-calcium tubular positive electrodes and pasted lead-
antimony negative plates. This design combines the advantages of both lead-calcium and lead-
antimony design, including good deep cycle performance, low water loss and long life.
Stratification and sulfation can also be a problem with these batteries, and must be treated
accordingly. These batteries are sometimes used in PV systems with larger capacity and deep
cycle requirements.
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2.2.3 Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries are secondary or rechargeable batteries, and have several
advantages over lead-acid batteries that make them attractive for use in stand-alone PV systems.
These advantages include long life, low maintenance, survivability from excessive discharges,
excellent low temperature capacity retention, and non-critical voltage regulation requirements.
The main disadvantages of nickel-cadmium batteries are their high cost and limited availability
compared to lead-acid designs. A typical nickel-cadmium cell consists of positive electrodes
made from nickel-hydroxide (NiO(OH)) and negative electrodes made from cadmium (Cd) and
immersed in an alkaline potassium hydroxide (KOH) electrolyte solution. When a nickel-
cadmium cell is discharged, the nickel hydroxide changes form (Ni(OH)2) and the cadmium
becomes cadmium hydroxide (Cd(OH)2). The concentration of the electrolyte does not change
during the reaction so the freezing point stays very low.
2.2.4 Specifying Batteries

The following are considered when specifying a properly sized and installed battery storage
system for a stand-alone photovoltaic system:
Depth of Discharge - This term is the percentage of the rated battery capacity that has been
withdrawn from the battery. The capability of a battery to withstand discharge depends on its
construction. The most common batteries have electrically active lead alloy plates immersed in a
mild acid electrolyte. Plate types are Planté (pure lead), pasted, or tubular. The plates can be
made with different thicknesses and different alloys, such as lead calcium, or lead antimony, for
different applications. Generally, the more massive the plates the better the battery will withstand
discharge and recharge (cycling). Two terms, shallow-cycle and deep-cycle, are commonly used
to describe batteries. Shallow Cycle batteries are lighter, less expensive, and will have a shorter
lifetime particularly if recommended discharge levels are exceeded regularly. Many sealed
(advertised as no maintenance) batteries are shallow-cycle types. Generally, the shallow-cycle
batteries should not be discharged more than 25 percent.
Deep-cycle batteries are more often used for stand-alone PV systems. These units have thicker
plates and most will withstand discharges up to 80 percent of their rated capacity. Most of these
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are flooded batteries which mean the plates are covered with the electrolyte. The electrolyte level
must be monitored and distilled water added periodically to keep the plates fully covered.
Another type of battery using nickel cadmium (NiCd) plates can be used. NiCd batteries are
more expensive but can withstand harsh weather conditions. NiCd batteries can be completely
discharged without damage and the electrolyte will not freeze.
The maximum depth of discharge value used for sizing should be the worst case discharge t hat
the battery will experience. The battery charge controller should be set to prevent discharge
below this level. Because nickel cadmium batteries can be discharged nearly 100 percent without
damage, some designers do not use a controller if NiCd batteries are used.
Temperature Correction – Batteries are sensitive to temperature extremes and a cold battery
will not provide as much power as a warm one. Most manufacturers provide temperature
correction curves. For instance, a battery at 25°C has 100 percent capacity if discharged at a
current rate of C/20. (The discharge rate is given as a ratio of the rated capacity, C, of the
battery.) However, a battery operating at 0°C would have only 75 percent of the rated capacity if
discharged at a C/20 rate. If the discharge rate is higher, say C/5, only 50 percent of the rated
capacity will be available when the temperature is minus 20°C. Although more than the rated
capacity can be obtained when the battery temperature is high, hot temperatures should be
avoided because they will shorten battery life. Battery should be kept near room temperature.
Rated Battery Capacity – This term indicates the maximum amount of energy that a battery can
produce during a single discharge under specified conditions of temperature and discharge rate.
You will not be able to obtain rated capacity repeatedly when the batteries are used in PV
systems. However, rated capacity sets a baseline on which to compare-battery performance.
When comparing the rated capacity of different batteries, be sure the same discharge rate is being
used.
State-of-Charge (SOC) -This is the amount of capacity remaining in a battery at any point in
time. It is equal to 1 minus the depth of discharge given as a percentage.
17
Battery Life (cycles) - The lifetime of any battery is difficult to predict because it depends on a
number of factors such as charge and discharge rates, depth of discharges, number of cycles, and
operating temperatures. It would be unusual for a lead acid type battery to last longer than 15
years in a PV system but many last for 5-10 years. Nickel cadmium batteries will generally last
longer when operated under similar conditions and may operate satisfactorily for more than 15
years under optimum conditions.
Battery Safety - Batteries which are used in photovoltaic systems are potentially dangerous if
improperly handled, installed, or maintained. Dangerous chemicals, heavy, weight and high
voltages and currents are potential hazards and can result in electric shock, burns explosion or
corrosive damage to your person or property.
Days of Autonomy - Autonomy refers to the number of days a battery system will provide a
given load without being recharged by the photovoltaic array. Correctly selecting a number of
days will depend on the system, its location, its total load and the nature of the system’s load.
Weather conditions determine the number of no sun days which may be the most significant
variable in determining autonomy.
2.3 Charge Controllers

Charge controllers are included in most photovoltaic systems to protect the batteries from
overcharge or excessive discharge. Overcharging can boil the electrolyte from the battery and
cause failure. Allowing the battery to be discharged too much will cause premature battery
failure and possible damage to the load. The controller is a critical component in the PV system.
A controller’s function is to control the system depending on the battery state-of-charge (SOC).
When the battery nears full SOC the controller redirects or switches off all or part of the array
current. When the battery is discharged below a preset level, some or the entire load is
disconnected if the controller includes the low voltage disconnect (LVD) capability. Most
controllers use a measurement of battery voltage to estimate the state-of-charge. Measuring
battery temperature improves the SOC estimate and many controllers have a temperature probe
for this purpose.
18
The controller voltage must be compatible with the nominal system voltage and it must be
capable of handling the maximum current produced by the PV array.
2.3.1 Types of controllers

There are two basic types of controllers used for small PV systems.
• Shunt controller - redirects or shunts the charging current away from the battery. These
controllers require a large heat sink to dissipate the excess current. Most shunt controllers
are designed for smaller systems producing 30 amperes or less.
• Series controller - interrupts the charging current by open-circuiting the PV array. This
switching controller is thus limited by the current handling capability of the components
used to switch the dc current.
• Single stage controllers - disconnect the array when the battery voltage reaches the high
voltage level.
• Multistage controllers - allow different charging currents as the battery nears full state-of
charge. This technique also provides a more efficient method of charging the battery. As
the battery nears full SOC, its internal resistance increases and using lower charging
current wastes less energy.
Figure 2.4 (a) Series Controller (b) Shunt Controller

19
2.3.2 Blocking Reverse Current
Photovoltaic panels work by pumping current through the battery in one direction. At night, the
panels may pass a bit of current in the reverse direction, causing a slight discharge from the
battery. Battery here represents either a single battery or bank of batteries. The potential loss is
minor, but it is easy to prevent. Some types of wind and hydro generators also draw reverse
current when they stop (most do not except under fault conditions).
In most controllers, charge current passes through a semiconductor (a transistor) which acts like
a valve to control the current. It prevents reverse current without any extra effort or cost. In some
controllers, an electromagnetic coil opens and closes a mechanical switch. This is called a relay.
The relay switches off at night, to block reverse current.
If a PV array is being used only to trickle-charge a battery (a very small array relative to the size
of the battery), then a charge controller may not be needed.
2.3.3 Preventing Overcharge

When a battery reaches full charge, it can no longer store incoming energy. If energy continues
to be applied at the full rate, the battery voltage gets too high. Water separates into hydrogen and
oxygen and bubbles out rapidly. There is excessive loss of water, and a chance that the gasses
can ignite and cause a small explosion. The battery will also degrade rapidly and may possibly
overheat. Excessive voltage can also stress loads or cause the inverter to shut off.
Preventing overcharge is simply a matter of reducing the flow of energy to the battery when the
battery reaches a specific voltage. When the voltage drops due to lower sun intensity or an
increase in electrical usage, the controller again allows the maximum possible charge. This is
called "voltage regulating." It is the most essential function of all charge controllers. The
controller "looks at" the voltage, and regulates the battery charging in response.
Some controllers regulate the flow of energy to the battery by switching the current fully on or
fully off. This is called "on/off control." Others reduce the current gradually. This is called "pulse
width modulation" (PWM). Both methods work well when set properly for your type of battery.
20
A PWM controller holds the voltage more constant. If it has two-stage regulation, it will first
hold the voltage to a safe maximum for the battery to reach full charge. Then, it will drop the
voltage lower, to sustain a "finish" or "trickle" charge. Two-stage regulating is important for a
system that may experience many days or weeks of excess energy (or little use of energy). It
maintains a full charge but minimizes water loss and stress.
The voltages at which the controller changes the charge rate are called set points. When
determining the ideal set points, there is some compromise between charging quickly before the
sun goes down, and mildly overcharging the battery. The determination of set points depends on
the anticipated patterns of usage, the type of battery, and to some extent, the experience and
philosophy of the system designer or operator. Some controllers have adjustable set points, while
others do not.
2.3.4 Control Set Points vs. Temperature

The ideal set points for charge control vary with a battery's temperature. Some controllers have a
feature called "temperature compensation." When the controller senses a low battery
temperature, it will raise the set points. Otherwise when the battery is cold, it will reduce the
charge too soon. If the batteries are exposed to temperature swings greater than about 30° F (17°
C), compensation is essential.
Some controllers have a temperature sensor built in. Such a controller must be mounted in a
place where the temperature is close to that of the batteries. Better controllers have a remote
temperature probe, on a small cable. The probe should be attached directly to a battery in order
to report its temperature to the controller.
An alternative to automatic temperature compensation is to manually adjust the set points (if
possible) according to the seasons.
2.3.5 Control Set Points vs. Battery Type

The ideal set points for charge controlling depend on the design of the battery. The vast majority
of RE systems use deep-cycle lead-acid batteries of either the flooded type or the sealed type.
Flooded batteries are filled with liquid. These are the standard, economical deep cycle batteries.
21
Sealed batteries use saturated pads between the plates. They are also called "valve-regulated" or
"absorbed glass mat," or simply "maintenance-free." They need to be regulated to a slightly
lower voltage than flooded batteries or they will dry out and be ruined. Some controllers have a
means to select the type of battery. Never use a controller that is not intended for your type of
battery.
Typical set points for 12 V lead-acid batteries at 77° F (25° C)

Example of set points;
High limit (flooded battery): 14.4 V
High limit (sealed battery): 14.0 V
Resume full charge: 13.0 V
Low voltage disconnect: 10.8 V

Reconnect: 12.5 V
Temperature compensation for 12V battery:

-.03 V per ° C deviation from standard 25° C
2.3.6 Low Voltage Disconnect (LVD)

The deep-cycle batteries used in renewable energy systems are designed to be discharged by
about 80 percent. If they are discharged 100 percent, they are immediately damaged. Every time
this happens, both the capacity and the life of the battery will be reduced by a small amount. If
the battery sits in this over discharged state for days or weeks at a time, it can be ruined quickly.
The only way to prevent over discharge when all else fails, is to disconnect loads (appliances,
lights, etc.), and then to reconnect them only when the voltage has recovered due to some
substantial charging. When over discharge is approaching, a 12 volt battery drops below 11 volts
(a 24 V battery drops below 22 V). A low voltage disconnect circuit will disconnect loads at that
set point. It will reconnect the loads only when the battery voltage has substantially recovered
due to the accumulation of some charge. A typical LVD reset point is 13 volts (26 V on a 24 V
system).
22
2.3.7 Overload Protection
A circuit is overloaded when the current flowing in it is higher than it can safely handle. This can
cause overheating and can even be a fire hazard. Overload can be caused by a fault (short circuit)
in the wiring, or by a faulty appliance (like a frozen water pump). Some charge controllers have
overload protection built in, usually with a push-button reset.
Built-in overload protection can be useful, but most systems require additional protection in the
form of fuses or circuit breakers. If you have a circuit with a wire size for which the safe carrying
capacity (ampacity) is less than the overload limit of the controller, then you must protect that
circuit with a fuse or breaker of a suitably lower amp rating.
2.4 Inverters
Inverters which are also known as Power conditioning units are necessary in any stand-alone PV
system with ac loads. The choice of inverter will be a factor in setting the dc operating voltage of
your system. When specifying an inverter, it is necessary to consider requirements of both the dc
input and the ac output. All requirements that the ac load will place on the inverter should be
considered, not only how much power but what variation in voltage, frequency, and waveform
can be tolerated. On the input side, the dc voltage, surge capacity, and acceptable voltage
variation must be specified. Selecting the best inverter for an application requires a study of
many parameters. The choice of inverter will affect the performance and reliability of a PV
system.
2.4.1Characteristics
Stand-alone inverters typically operate at 12, 24, 48 or 120 volts dc input and create 120 or 240
volts ac at 50 Hertz. The selection of the inverter input voltage is an important decision because
it often dictates the system dc voltage; the shape of the output waveform is an important
parameter. Inverters are often categorized according to the type of waveform produced;
1. Square wave,
2. Modified sine wave
3. Sine wave.
23
The output waveform depends on the conversion method and the filtering used on the output
waveform to eliminate spikes and unwanted frequencies that result when the switching occurs.
Square wave inverters are relatively inexpensive, have efficiencies above 90 percent, high
harmonic frequency content, and little output voltage regulation. They are suitable for resistive
loads and incandescent lamps. Modified sine wave inverters offer improved voltage regulation
by varying the duration of the pulse width in their output. Efficiencies can reach 90 percent. This
type of inverter can be used to operate a wider variety of loads including lights, electronic
equipment, and most motors. However, these inverters will not operate a motor as efficiently as a
sine wave inverter because the energy in the additional harmonics is dissipated in the motor
windings. Sine wave inverters produce an ac waveform as good as that from most electric
utilities.
They can operate any ac appliance or motor within their power rating. In general, any inverter
should be oversized 25 percent or more to increase reliability and lifetime. This also allows for
modest growth in load demand. The efficiency of all inverters is lowest for small load demand
and reach their nominal efficiency (around 85 percent) when the load demand is greater than
about 50 percent of rated load. The manufacturers’ specification sheets will list some of the
following parameters.
• Power Conversion Efficiency - This value gives the ratio of output power to input
power of the inverter. Efficiency of stand-alone inverters will vary significantly with the
load. Values found in manufacturers’ specifications are the maximum that can be
expected.
• Rated Power - Rated power of the inverter. However, some units cannot produce rated
power continuously. See duty rating. Choose an inverter that will provide at least 125
percent of simultaneous peak load requirements to allow for some growth in load
demand.
• Duty Rating - This rating gives the amount of time the inverter can supply its rated
power. Some inverters can operate at their rated power for only a short time without
overheating. Exceeding this time may cause hardware failure.
24
• Input Voltage - This is determined by the total power required by the ac loads and the
voltage of any dc loads. Generally, the larger the load, the higher the inverter input
voltage. This keeps the current at levels where switches and other components are readily
available.
• Surge Capacity - Most inverters can exceed their rated power for limited periods of time
(seconds). Surge requirements of specific loads should be determined or measured. Some
transformers and ac motors require starting currents several times their operating level for
several seconds.
• Standby Current - This is the amount of current (power) used by the inverter when no
load is active (power loss). This is an important parameter if the inverter will be left on
for long periods of time to supply small loads. The inverter efficiency is lowest when
load demand is low.
• Voltage Regulation - This indicates the variability in the output voltage. Better units will
produce a nearly constant root-mean-square (RMS) output voltage for a wide range of
loads.
• Voltage Protection - The inverter can be damaged if dc input voltage levels are
exceeded. Remember, battery voltage can far exceed nominal if the battery is
overcharged. A 12-volt battery may reach 16 volts or more and this could damage some
inverters. Many inverters have sensing circuits that will disconnect the unit from the
battery if specified voltage limits are exceeded.
• Frequency - Most loads in Kenya require 50 Hz. High-quality equipment requires
precise frequency regulation variations can cause poor performance of clocks and
electronic timers.
• Modularity - In some systems it is advantageous to use multiple inverters. These can be
connected in parallel to service different loads. Manual load switching is sometimes
provided to allow one inverter to meet critical loads in case of failure. This added
redundancy increases system reliability.
• Power Factor - The cosine of the angle between the current and voltage waveforms
produced by the inverter is the power factor. For resistive loads, the power factor will be
1.0 but for inductive loads, the most common load in residential systems, the power
25
factor will drop, sometimes as low as 0.5. Power factor is determined by the load, not the
inverter.
2.4.2 Installation
An inverter should be installed in a controlled environment because high temperatures and
excessive dust will reduce lifetime and may cause failure. The inverter should not be installed in
the same enclosure with the batteries because the corrosive gassing of the batteries can damage
the electronics and the switching in the inverter might cause an explosion. However, the inverter
should be installed near the batteries to keep resistive losses in the wires to a minimum. After
conversion to ac power, the wire size can be reduced because the ac voltage is usually higher
than the dc voltage. This means the ac current is lower than the dc current for a equivalent power
load.
Both the input and output circuits of the inverter should be protected with fuses or circuit
breakers. These safety devices should be accessible and clearly labelled. Using a surge protection
device on the inverter input to protect against nearby lightning strikes is recommended for most
areas. A component such as a movistor shunts surge current to ground. If a nearby lightning
strike occurs, this may destroy the movistor, but its destruction might prevent expensive inverter
repair bills.
26
CHAPTER 3: DESIGN
3.1 Photovoltaic system sizing

Sizing a photovoltaic system for a stand-alone photovoltaic power system involves a five step
process which will allow the photovoltaic system designer or user to accurately size a system
based on users projected needs, goals and budget. These steps are:
1. Estimating The Electric Load
2. Sizing and Specifying An Inverter
3. Sizing and Specifying Batteries
4. Sizing and Specifying An Array
5. Specifying A Controller
3.2 Photovoltaic system sizing worksheet instructions
3.2.1 Estimating the Electric Load

The first task for any photovoltaic system design is to determine the system load. This load
estimate is one of the key factors in the design and cost of the stand-alone PV system. Worksheet
1, which is shown in the insert, is used to calculate average daily loads and the result will be the
sum of the estimated loads for both ac and dc appliances. If the loads vary significantly on a
seasonal basis or are of a critical nature the peak load values are used.
The following steps are followed for Electric Load Estimation;
• Identify each load and the number of hours of use per day. Enter the load current in
amperes and the operating voltage for each load and calculate the power demand. The
power demand is the product of the current and the voltage. List the ac loads at the top of
the worksheet and dc loads, at the bottom. A power conditioning unit (PCU) is required
for ac loads. A PCU, commonly called an inverter, adds complexity to a system and
causes a 10-15 percent loss of power because of the efficiency of converting dc power to
27
ac power. If only a small percentage of the loads require ac power, it may be better to
replace those devices with ones that use dc power.
• Group the loads by type and operating voltage and sum the Power demand for each
group. The recommended voltage of the standalone PV system will be determined by
considering this information.
• After selecting the system voltage, calculate the total daily ampere hours required at this
voltage.
The load determination is straightforward the power requirements of any electrical device that
will be included in the system are calculated and multiplied by the amount of time that specific
appliances will operate each day. The power required by an appliance can be measured or
obtained from manufacturer’s data sheets. However, the amount of time the appliance will be
used per day, week, or month must be estimated. For residential systems (and many others) the
hours of use can be controlled by the system owner.
The design should consider energy conserving substitutes for items that are used often. Large
and/or variable loads are determined and if they can be eliminated or changed to operate from
another power source. Fluorescent lamps should be used in place of incandescent lamps. They
provide the same light levels with much lower power demand. Dc appliances considered to avoid
the loss in the dc/ac power conversion process. DC lights and appliances usually cost more, but
are more efficient and last longer. The number of ac appliances available is greater but
efficiencies are usually lower because these appliances are designed for use on an “infinite”
utility power supply.
Summary of Worksheet 1
The Electric load estimation is computed by adding the wattage of each and every component in
the system. DC and AC loads are totalled separately. This will give the ‘Total Connected
Watts’. The ‘Average Daily Load’ is then computed by multiplying the Total connected watts by
28
the hours of use per day and the hours of use per week and the result is divided by 7 (total
number of days in a week).
WORKSHEET 1: ELECTRIC LOAD ESTIMATION
Table 3.1 Electric Load Estimation

ELECTRIC LOAD ESTIMATION
LOADS VOLTS × AMPS × QTY = WATTS × USE × USE ÷ 7 = AVG.

WATT HR/
HRS/DAY DAYS/WK DAYS/WK DAY
AC DC AC DC
× × = × × × =
× × = × × × =
× × = × × × =
× × = × × × =
× × = × × × =
× × = × × × =
× × = × × × =
× × = × × × =
× × = × × × =
AC TOTAL CONNECTED WATTS × AC AVERAGE DAILY LOAD =
DC TOTAL CONNECTED WATTS × DC AVERAGE DAILY LOAD =
3.2.2 Specifying an Inverter

The Alternating current total connected watts or those that will be used simultaneously as
computed above is divided by the direct current system voltage. This will provide the Maximum
direct Current Amps continuous which the system will require. The inverter specification should
be made on the basis of the AC watts since essentially it should supply this load. The inverter
should meet the system’s wattage specification.
29
WORK SHEET 2: INVERTER SPECIFICATION
Table 3.2 Inverter specification
INVERTER SPECIFICATION
AC TOTAL ÷ DC = MAXIMUM ESTIMATED LISTED

CONNECTED SYSTEM DC AMPS SURGE DESIRED
WATTS VOLTAGE CONTINUOS WATTS FEATURES
÷ =
INVERTER MAKE MODEL

SPECIFICATION
3.2.3 Sizing and specifying a battery

Worksheet 3, which is shown in the inset, can be used to determine the size of the battery storage
required for a stand-alone PV system. Before making these choices, the concept of system
availability and battery parameters should be taken into consideration. Some of the
considerations made when sizing the battery are;
• First, the amount of back-up energy to be stored is calculated for the given application.
This is usually expressed as a number of no sun days, in other words, for how many
cloudy days must the system operate using energy stored in batteries. This depends on the
application, the type of battery, and the system availability desired.
• When specifying, the difference between rated battery capacity and usable capacity
should be enumerated. Many Battery manufacturers publish a rated battery capacity (the
amount of energy that their battery will provide if discharged once under favourable
conditions of temperature and discharge rate). This is usually much higher than the
amount of energy that can be taken out of the battery repeatedly in a PV application. For
some shallow-cycle, sealed batteries the usable capacity is only 20 percent of the rated
capacity, i.e., taking more than 20 ampere-hours from a 100 ampere-hour battery will
cause the battery to quickly fail. Other types of batteries designed for deep cycling will
30
have usable capacities up to 80 percent of rated capacity. For most PV applications the
bigger and heavier the battery the better. The best recommendation for the number of
days of storage is to put in as much battery capacity as can be afforded. Obviously, for
areas with extended periods of cloudiness need more storage capacity to keep the load
going during these periods of inclement weather. Also, if it is critical that loads have
power at all times, it is advisable to have a large battery capacity. A smaller battery size
can be specified if one can live with some power outage. The PV system design takes
into consideration all these aspects plus more when choosing the battery type and size.
Some factors can outweigh the technical sizing decision. For instance, if batteries can be
obtained locally thus making savings in shipping costs. This savings can be used to buy
more batteries.
• Also, there are many types of batteries with a large variance in quality and cost. Figure
3.1 gives a starting point for making battery size selection using the design month peak
sun hours. Just find the peak sun hours for the design month and read up to the days of
storage for system availabilities of 95 or 99 percent. It is important to buy quality
batteries that can be discharged and recharged many times before failure. Automobile
batteries should not be used if there is any alternative. Automobile batteries are designed
to produce a high current for a short time. The battery is then quickly recharged. PV
batteries may be discharged slowly over many hours and may not be recharged fully for
several days or weeks.
• Finally, it is important to understand the close interrelation between the battery and the
charge controller. When a battery is bought a compatible charge controller should also be
purchased. A charge controller is an electronic device that attempts to maintain the
battery state-of-charge (SOC) between preset limits. The battery voltage is measured and
used as the primary estimator of SOC. (Some charge controllers measure battery
temperature in addition to voltage to improve the estimate of SOC.) If the charge
controller does not operate properly the battery may be over charged or allowed to
31
discharge too much. Either way the lifetime of the battery will be shortened more money
will be spent money to replace the batteries.
Figure 3.1 Graph of Days of Usable Storage against Peak Sun Hours
To the specify the battery we first establish the inverter losses which will occur by inputting the
Alternating current Average daily load and dividing it by the inverter efficiency which is usually
less than 90 percent(0.9). This watt hour total is then added to the Direct Current Average Daily
Load and the result divided by the Direct Current System Voltage to arrive at the Average Amp
Hour per Day Load.
This Average Amp hour per Day Load should be multiplied by the desired Days of Autonomy to
determine the required battery capacity. The total is divided by the Discharge limit or the
Battery’s Maximum Depth of Discharge (a number less than 1.0) to determine the required
Battery capacity.
32
WORKSHEET 3: BATTERY SIZING
Table 3.3 Battery sizing
BATTERY SIZING
AC ÷ INVERTER + DC ÷ DC SYSTEM = AVE AMP

AVERAGE EFFICIENCY AVERAGE VOLTAGE HOUR PER
DAILY DAILY DAY LOAD
LOAD LOAD
÷ ÷ =
AVE AMP ÷ DAYS OF ÷ DISCHARGE ÷ BATTERY = BATTERIES

HOUR PER AUTONOMY LIMIT AMP HR. IN
DAY LOAD CAPACITY PARALLEL
÷ ÷ ÷ =
DC ÷ BATTERY = BATTERIES × BATTERIES = TOTAL

SYSTEM VOLTAGE IN SERIES IN BATTERIES
VOLTAGE PARALLEL
÷ = × =
3.2.4 Sizing and Specifying an Array

The design method for the array uses current (amperes) instead of power (watts) to describe the
load requirement because it is easier to make a meaningful comparison of PV module
performance, i.e., specifying PV modules that will produce 30 amperes at 12 volts and a
specified operating temperature rather than try to compare 50 watt modules that may have
different operating points. The module specifications are obtained for available modules so that a
comparison of performance, physical size, and cost can be made. Generally, there are several
modules that will meet a given set of requirements.
The worksheet requests the entry of rated module current. This is the current produced at
standard test conditions (STC) of 1,000w/m² irradiance and 25°C temperature. The module
specifications given by one module manufacturer are shown in Fig 3.2.The current values given
are at short circuit, Isc, and at the peak power point, Imp. The value used in the worksheet for
33
rated module current should be Isc. The voltage at the peak power point is stated as 17.5volts.
However, the operating voltage of a PV array is determined by the battery voltage. This varies
over a narrow range depending on the battery state of charge and ambient temperature but is
usually 1 to 4 volts lower than the voltage at which peak power figures are quoted by module
manufacturers.
Electrical Characteristics BP 350
Maximum power (Pmax) 50W

Voltage at Pmax (Vmp) 17.5V
Current at Pmax (Imp) 2.9A
Warranted minimum Pmax 45W
Short-circuit current (Isc) 3.2A
Open-circuit voltage (Voc) 21.8V
Figure 3.2 50W Module Specification
Fortunately, the current changes little from the peak power voltage (17.5 volts) to normal system
operating voltages (12 volts). For crystalline silicon modules, the operating voltage will decrease
about one-half of one percent for each degree centigrade rise in temperature. The module
described in Figure 3.2 has a peak power voltage of 17.5volts at 25°C. If this module operates at
50°C in a specific application, the peak power voltage would drop to about 15.5 volts. This is
still adequate for use in a nominal 12-volt battery system, but the design makes sure the current
supplied by the module is adequate under the hottest expected conditions. Also, if a blocking
diode is used between the module and the battery, this will cause a voltage drop of about 0.7
volts. The module must be able to sustain this drop plus any voltage drops caused by the wires
and still supply enough voltage to fully charge the battery.
The number of parallel-connected modules required to produce the design current is rarely a
whole number, the design must make a decision whether to round up or round down. The system
availability requirements should be considered when making this decision. Since the design
presented here is intended to just meet the load during the design month of an average year, the
conservative approach is to round up to the nearest whole module. The number of series-
connected modules is calculated by dividing the system voltage by the nominal module voltage
(12 volt modules are commonly used for stand-alone PV systems).
34
To begin this section the battery inefficiency is calculated. This value can be taken from
manufacturer’s data sheets. The Average Amp Hour per Day Load is then divided by an
estimated “Battery Energy Efficiency” which is usually about 0.8. This figure includes the
balance of system inefficiencies and is the amp-hour production required of the array. The result
is divided by the number of “Peak Sun Hours per Day” available and this will give the “Array
Peak Amps”. Peak sun hours may be adjusted to account for other variables such as added
reflectance or shading. The Array Peak Amps is then divided by “Peak Amps per Module”. The
Peak amps per Module is a tested value at one peak sun and should be found in a module
manufacturer’s module specifications. This calculation will result in the number of modules in
parallel which the system will require.
WORKSHEET 4: SYSTEM ARRAY SIZING
Table 3.4 Array sizing
ARRAY SIZING
AVERAGE ÷ BATTERY ÷ PEAK SUN = ARRAY PEAK AMPS

AMP ENERGY HOURS/
HOUR PER EFFICIENCY DAY
DAY LOAD
÷ ÷ =
ARRAY ÷ PEAK AMPS = MODULES MODULE SHORT CIRCUIT

PEAK PER IN CURRENT
AMPS MODULE PARALLEL
÷ =
DC ÷ NOMINAL = MODULES × MODULES = TOTAL

SYSTEM MODULE IN IN SERIES MODULES
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE PARALLEL
÷ = × =
35
3.2.5 Specifying a Controller
The controller must not only be able to handle typical or rated voltages and currents, but must
also be sized to handle expected peak or surge conditions from the PV array or required by the
electrical loads that may be connected to the controller. It is extremely important that the
controller be adequately sized for the intended application. If an undersized controller is used
and fails during operation, the costs of service and replacement will be higher than what would
have been spent on a controller that was initially oversized for the application.
Typically it is expected that a PV module or array produces no more than its rated maximum
power current at 1000 W/m2 irradiance and 25oC module temperature.
The size of a controller is determined by multiplying the peak rated current from the module by
the modules or strings in parallel. To be conservative, the short-circuit current (Isc) is generally
used.
To specify the controller the ‘Module Short Circuit Current’ is multiplied by ‘Modules in
parallel.’ The result is the Maximum array amps the controller would encounter under short
circuit condition. Charge controllers should be sized according to the voltages and currents
expected during operation of the PV system.
WORKSHEET 5: CONTROLLER SPECIFICATION
Table 3.5 Controller Specification
CONTROLLER SPECIFICATION
MODULE × MODULES = MAXIMUM CONTROLLER LISTED

SHORT IN ARRAY ARRAY AMPS DESIRED
CIRCUIT PARALLEL AMPS FEATURES
CURRENT
× =
DC TOTAL ÷ DC = MAXIMUM CONTROLLER

CONNECTED SYSTEM DC LOAD LOAD AMPS
WATTS VOLTAGE AMPS
÷ =
36
3.2.6 Summary of Steps for sizing
Estimating the Electric Load
1) Compute the Total connected watts for both AC and DC.
2) Compute the Average Daily Load for Both AC and DC.
Specifying an Inverter
3) Compute the Total AC connected watts.
4) Specify an Inverter to supply the AC Total connected watts.
Battery Sizing
5) Establish the Inverter Losses.
6) Divide the AC Average Daily Load by the Inverter efficiency.
7) Add the result in (6) to the DC Average Daily Load.
8) Divide the result in (7) by the system voltage to get ‘Average Amp Hour Day Load’.
9) Divide the result in (8) by the Days of Autonomy.
10) Divide the result In (9) to get the’ Total Amp Hour Capacity’ of the System.
11) Specify a battery and divide the Total Connected watts by the battery’s rated its Amp
Hour to get the Batteries needed to be connected in Parallel.
12) Divide the DC system voltage by the battery voltage to get the batteries wired in series.
13) Multiply (11) and (12) to get the Total number of batteries needed.
Array Sizing
14) Establish the battery energy efficiency.
15) Divide the Amp hour day Load by the battery efficiency.
16) Divide the result in (15) by the ’Peak Sun Hours’ to get ‘Total Array Peak Amps’.
17) Specify a module and divide the Array peak amps by the Peak amps produced by each
module to get the Modules needed in parallel.
18) Divide the Dc system voltage by the nominal module voltage to get the Modules in
Series.
37
19) Multiply the result in (17) by that in (18) to get the Total number of modules needed.
Specifying a Controller
20) Multiply the module short circuit current by the total number of module to get the
minimum Amp rating for the Charge Controller.
38
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
4.1 Sample System Problem

The following exercise will design a stand-alone PV system. The system parameters are listed
followed by the Sizing worksheets prepared in Microsoft Word Excel (Appendix C). The design
is based on standard loads for an urban house hold. The sizing has carried out for major areas in
Kenya; this is to show the variance in system requirements for different areas.
4.2 Stand-Alone PV System parameters

The first section considers the location in Nairobi with a solar radiation of 4.5 – 5.0 (See
Appendix A figure A.2). The lower of these two values is taking to ensure a safety factor in the
case of low solar radiation. Manufacturer data sheets are provided in Appendix B, for some
system parameters. The electric Load information is provided in Worksheet 1.
System parameters;
DC system voltage: 12V
Peak sun hours = Solar radiation = 4.5
Days of Autonomy: 6
Battery depth of discharge: 50%
Battery Choice: Gaston 200AH battery (GT12-200 C-2)
PV Module choice: 130W BP Solar Module
Power = 130Watts
12Volt nominal
Peak Amps = 7.5
Short Circuit Amps = 8.2
Controller Choice: Outback MX60 Charge Controller
12Volt nominal
Maximum Pass through Amperage = 60A
Inverter Choice: Xantrex 4024 Inverter
39
Efficiency = 94%
Continuous Power output = 4000W
12 Volt nominal
Surge capacity 35 Amps AC
4.3 Sizing Worksheet Calculations
1. ELECTRIC LOAD ESTIMATION
ELECTRIC LOAD ESTIMATION
LOADS WATTS × QTY = WATTS × USE × USE ÷ 7 = WATT HRS

AVG. DAY
HRS/DAY DAYS/WK DAYS/WK
AC DC AC DC
29' TV 300 × 1 = 300 × 8 × 7 × 2400 = 2400
H/THEATRE 100 × 1 = 100 × 6 × 5 × 428.57 = 428.57
KETTLE 1500 × 1 = 1500 × 1 × 7 × 1500 = 1500
FRIDGE 150 × 1 = 150 × 8 × 7 × 1200 = 1200
IRON 1000 × 1 = 1000 × 0.3 × 4 × 171.43 = 171.43
WAHING 300 × 1 = 300 × 1 × 4 × 171.43 = 171.43

MACHINE
RADIO 110 × 1 = 110 × 5 × 5 × 392.86 = 392.86
COMPUTER 80 × 1 = 80 × 7 × 6 × 480 = 480
ESAVER 20 × 10 = 200 × 7 × 7 × 1400 = 1400

LIGHTS
AC TOTAL CONNECTED WATTS 3540 × AC AVERAGE DAILY LOAD = 6744.29
DC TOTAL CONNECTED WATTS 200 × DC AVERAGE DAILY LOAD = 1400
40
2. INVERTER SPECIFICATION
INVERTER SPECIFICATION
AC TOTAL ÷ DC SYSTEM = MAXIMUM DC
CONNECTED WATTS VOLTAGE AMPS CONTINUOS
3540 ÷ 12 = 295
INVERTER SPECIFICATION USE A XANTREX 4000W INVERTER
3. BATTERY SPECIFICATION
BATTERY SIZING
AC ÷ INVERTER + DC AVERAGE ÷ DC SYSTEM = AVE AMP
AVERAGE EFFICIENCY DAILY LOAD VOLTAGE HOUR PER
DAILY DAY LOAD
LOAD
6744.28571 ÷ 0.94 1400 ÷ 12 = 714.56
AVE AMP × DAYS OF ÷ DISCHARGE ÷ BATTERY = BATTERIES IN
HOUR PER AUTONOMY LIMIT AMP HR. PARALLEL
DAY LOAD CAPACITY
714.56 × 6 ÷ 0.5 ÷ 200 = 42.87
DC SYSTEM ÷ BATTERY = BATTERIES IN × BATTERIES IN = TOTAL
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE SERIES PARALLEL BATTERIES
12 ÷ 12 = 1 43 43
43× 200Ah Batteries are to be connected in parallel.
41
4. SIZING AND SPECIFYING AN ARRAY
ARRAY SIZING
AVERAGE AMP ÷ BATTERY ENERGY ÷ PEAK SUN = ARRAY PEAK AMPS
HOUR PER EFFICIENCY HOURS
DAY LOAD DAY

714.56 ÷ 0.8 ÷ 4.5 = 216.075
ARRAY PEAK ÷ PEAK AMPS PER = MODULES IN MODULE SHORT
AMPS MODULE PARALLEL CIRCUIT CURRENT
216.075 ÷ 7.5 = 26.47 8.2
26 × 130Watts Modules are to be connected in parallel.
5. CONTROLLER SPECIFICATION
CONTROLLER SPECIFICATION
MODULE SHORT × MODULES IN = MAXIMUM CONTROLLER LISTED
CIRCUIT CURRENT PARALLEL ARRAY AMPS ARRAY AMPS DESIRED
FEATURES
8.2 × 26.47 = 217.02 240

DC TOTAL ÷ DC SYSTEM = MAXIMUM DC CONTROLLER
CONNECTED VOLTAGE LOAD AMPS LOAD AMPS
WATTS
200 ÷ 12 = 16.6666667 16.67
4 × 60Amps Charge Controllers are used to be able to handle the Maximum array amps of
217.02 Amps.
Summary of Sample Sizing for Nairobi
From the calculations in the Worksheets the solar PV system requirements are;
• 26 × 130W Solar PV modules are to be connected in parallel
• 43 × 200Ah Batteries are to be connected in parallel
• 1 × 4000 watts Inverter
• 4 × 60Amps Charge Controllers

42
4.2 Sizing for Other Areas
1) Nyanza and Coast Province
Both have an average solar radiation of between 5.0 - 5.5. Taking the lower of the two which
is 5.0, the sizing calculations are done;
• 24 × 130W Solar PV modules are to be connected in parallel.
• 36 × 200Ah Batteries are to be connected in parallel.
• 1 × 4000 watts Inverter.
• 4 × 60Amps Charge Controllers.
2) Western and North Eastern Province
Average Solar radiation between 5.0 -5.5
3) Rift Valley and Eastern Province
Average Solar radiation between 6.0 - 6.5
43
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION
5.1 Problems encountered
Getting various maps from the Geological department for available solar insolation in Kenya was
a headache due to a lot of bureaucracy. I was forced to resort to the Ministry of energy and check
archived reports for these maps. (Provided in Appendix A)
Access to internet services was costly as such services provided by the university are minimal
and do not cater for the student population.
5.2 Recommendations
It is a highly recommended that stand alone photovoltaic system designers adopt this design as it
incorporates all the aspects of system sizing and also any unforeseen losses in power due to
equipment. The design is also simple to use and quite straight forward. Some practical
recommendations for designing, installing, and operating stand-alone PV systems are;
1) Keep the design simple - Complexity lowers reliability and increases maintenance cost.
2) Understand system availability - Achieving 99 + percent availability with any energy
system is expensive.
3) Be thorough but realistic, when estimating the load - A 25 percent safety factor can
cost a great deal of money.
4) Cross-check weather sources - Errors in solar resource estimates can cause
disappointing system performance. The system may be undersized or oversized and this
means that it will not meet requirements.
5) Know the installation site before designing the system - A site visit is recommended
for good planning of component placement, wire runs, shading, and terrain peculiarities.
6) Install the system carefully - Make each connection as if it had to last 30 years-it does.
Use the right tools and technique. The system reliability is no higher than its weakest
connection.
7) Safety first and last – Do not take shortcuts that might endanger life or property.
Comply with local and national building and electrical codes.
44
8) Plan periodic maintenance - PV systems have an enviable record for unattended
operation, but no system works forever without some care. Routine maintenance is
important to increase the life span of this system.
5.3 Conclusion
The variances in solar radiation can cause huge difference in the system size. This is because the
solar radiation gives the available sun hours. If sun hours are low then a bigger system is
required. From the results section it can be observed that the location of the system plays a great
part in sizing. The areas that have low solar radiation like Nairobi require more PV modules and
batteries. It is vital that accurate information on solar radiation is obtained to avoid over sizing or
under sizing of the system.
It can also be noted that the size of the inverter and charge controller do not change with
location. This is because their sizing only depends on the loads connected. It is important that
accurate load and component data is taken from manufacturer’s data sheets to ensure accuracy in
the calculations.
The objectives of the project were achieved as well as the comprehensive understanding of PV
systems. The system sizing technique presented is consistent and is recommended for stand-
alone PV system design.
45
APPENDIX
APPENDIX A
A1. Current situation of solar energy utilization in Kenya

Kenya is well known for a large-scale market-driven penetration of very small photovoltaic (PV)
systems in rural areas. It is estimated that about 200,000 rural households already use PV
systems, and that the figure is growing by about 20,000 users per annum. The PV systems have a
typical capacity of 12-50 W consisting of low-cost amorphous modules and car batteries. In most
cases, the components are bought one after the other, so that they are not well matched or sized
to each other and often are not very reliable or long lasting. Nevertheless, due to comparatively
low costs, the use of PV in rural households is much more widespread in Kenya than in other
African countries though some of them have special PV household electrification programs.
The application of PV systems for infrastructure and business uses focuses particularly on
telecommunication, protection of pipelines, water pumping, and small commercial or
noncommercial establishments. Also in most of these cases, the installation is initiated by the
companies, owners or organisations as an individual investment decision. Under the Rural
Electrification Programme the Ministry of Energy (MoE) has launched a programme for
educational and health institutions in arid and semi-arid areas. MoE commenced the programme
of installing solar electricity to secondary boarding schools in North Eastern Province in
Financial Year (FY) 2005/06.
A.2 Available data sources on the solar energy potential
A.2.1 World Radiation Data Centre (WRDC)
The Meteorological Department of Kenya operates some 35 meteorological stations all over the
country. However, the access to the measured data is limited. The WRDC collects radiation data
as provided from the national meteorological departments from more than 1100 stations
worldwide since 1964. For 15 meteorological stations in Kenya, daily radiation data are available
46
covering a 30-year period of 1964-1993. However, for all existing stations, data are collected
manually, which might include several mistakes and data gaps. In addition, sometimes
the sensors are covered by dirt or are shaded after some time by new buildings and growing
trees in the surroundings, so that reliability of the data cannot be ensured.
The following graph shows the annual course of the measured average daily solar radiation.
For several locations in warm and semi-arid to arid areas of Kenya, the average daily
radiation is above 6 kWh/m²*d throughout the year, thus resulting in a continuously good and
relatively stable potential. On the contrary, mainly the mountainous areas in central Kenya,
which are affected by colder and cloudy weather during the main rainy and the following cool
season, face a significant drop in the available radiation between May and September and
an ensuing reduction in their solar energy potential.
Figure A.1: Average Daily Radiation Measured at 15 Meteorological Stations in

Kenya by Month of Year in the Period 1964-1993
47
A.2.2 Solar Wind Energy Resources Assessment (SWERA) Data Base
The SWERA program aims at providing online data and maps on solar and wind potential all
over the world. This information has been gathered and is provided by various institutions
and sources for the different countries. There is no general standard or verification mechanism.
The different maps are calculated by using different meteorological models as preferred
by the individual institutions. The ensuing deviations between the different models might,
however, be in the range of some percent only. This does not appear dramatic, because
such a range would also be expected as general uncertainty of the calculated data.
The following map shows the global horizontal solar radiation calculated by NREL (National
Renewable Energy Laboratory for the U.S. Department of Energy), using the Climatological
Solar Radiation (CSR) Model (also developed by NREL). This model uses information on
cloud cover, atmospheric water vapour and trace gases, and the amount of aerosols in the
atmosphere, in order to calculate the monthly average daily total insolation on a horizontal
surface. The cloud cover data used as input to the CSR model are a 7-year histogram (1985-
1991) of monthly average cloud fraction provided for grid cells of 40 km x 40 km in size,
which is also the spatial resolution of the CSR model.
It is not clear in how far existing ground measurement stations were considered reliable and
were used to validate the model. NREL itself estimates the uncertainty of the modelled results
at roughly 10%. Terrain effects and other microclimate influences (i.e. water surfaces),
the local cloud cover can vary significantly even within a single grid cell of 40 km x 40 km.
Furthermore, the uncertainty of the modelled estimates increases with distance from reliable
measurement sources and with the complexity of the terrain.
Another special in the considered case is the problem arising from the fact that the model
calculations are separated into patches (i.e. northern and southern hemisphere), which may
cause unsteadiness at the interfaces. Despite the mentioned shortcomings, the general
information appears reasonable and corresponds to a large extent to the results of the
Meteorological Department at certain sites.
Since solar energy plays an important role for off-grid and stand-alone applications, the
48
proper system design (module size as well as storage capacity) is of major importance.
Therefore, the annual mean radiation is not the appropriate parameter for sizing of an isolated
system, but rather the lowest radiation month or season, respectively, should be the basis
for system design, in order to ensure supply security.
The following map is regarded as sufficiently reliable basis for designing PV systems.
Figure A.2: Calculated Average Figures of Daily Global Horizontal Solar Radiation in Kenya
1985-1991
49
APPENDIX B
B.1 Manufactures Data Sheets

Table B.1 Gaston Batteries Specification
Battery Depth of discharge- 50%, Battery efficiency 80%
50
Table B.2 Recommended Days of Autonomy
kW/m2/day Days of Storage
4.5+ 5
3.5 to 4.5 6
2.7 to 3.5 7
2.0 to 2.7 8
<2.0 Up to 14
Table B.3 Solar Module sizes available in Kenya from BP Solar.
Rated Short Open

Dimensions power Current Voltage at circuit circuit
Maximum
Type at Pmax Pmax system
(mm) (Pmax) current voltage
(Imp) (A) (Vmp)(V) voltage (V)
（w） (Isc)(A) (Voc)(V)
REW350 839x537x50 50 2.9 17.5 3.2 21.8 600
REW365 931x536x35 65 3.6 18 3.8 22.2 600
REW375 1209x537x50 75 4.3 17.3 4.7 21.8 1000
REW380 1209x537x50 80 4.5 17.6 4.8 22.1 1000
REW3125 1510x674x50 125 7.2 17.4 8.1 22 1000
REW3130 1510x674x50 130 7.5 17.3 8.2 22 1000
51
Table B.4 Xantrex 4024 Inverter Datasheet
52
Table B.5 Outback MX60 Charge Controller Datasheet
MX60 CHARGE CONTROLLER
53
APPENDIX C
Figure C.1 MS Excel Worksheet calculations for Table 3.1 and 3.2
54
Figure C.2 MS Excel Worksheet calculations for Tables 3.3 and 3.4
55
REFERENCE
[1] D. King: "Photovoltaic Module and Array Performance Characterisation Methods for
All System Operating Conditions", Proceeding of NREL/SNL Photovoltaics Program Review
Meeting, 1996, Lakewood, CO, USA.
[2] J. Nelson, ‘The Physics of Solar Cells’ Imperial College Press: London, UK (2003).
[3] M.A. Green, ‘Third Generation Photovoltaics Advanced Solar Energy Conversion.’
Springer Berlin, Germany (2003).
[4] S.R.Wenham, M.A.Green, M.E.Watt, R.Corkish ‘Applied Photovoltaics (Second

Edition) Earthscan (London) 2006
[4] Tom Markvart and Luis Castafier, ‘Practical handbook of photovoltaics: fundamentals
and applications.’ Elsevier Science Ltd. Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford (2003)
[5] James P. Dunlop, ‘Batteries and Charge Control in Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems
Fundamentals and Application’ 1997
[6] Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems – ‘A Handbook of Recommended Design Practices’,
Sandia National Laboratories, SAND87-7023, revised November 1991.
Internet Sources;
www.outbackpower.com
www.xantrex.com
www.retscreen.com
www.sandia.gov/pv
www.gaston.com
www.nrel.gov/ncpv
56

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UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

FEE 560: FINAL YEAR PROJECT

REG. NO. F17/8231/2004

SUPERVISOR: DR. CYRUS WEKESA

PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT

I extend my heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Cyrus Wekesa, my supervisor.

1.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1

1.2 Objectives ............................................................................................................................. 2

1.3 Project overview ................................................................................................................... 2

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................ 4

2.1 Photovoltaic module ............................................................................................................. 4

2.1.1 Photovoltaic module performance ................................................................................. 5

2.1.2 Factors affecting photovoltaic module performance ..................................................... 6

2.1.3 The photovoltaic effect .................................................................................................. 8

2.1.4 Photovoltaic array .......................................................................................................... 8

2.1.5 Electrical characteristics of PV modules ....................................................................... 8

2.1.6 Efficiency (η) ................................................................................................................. 9

2.1.7 Advantages and disadvantages of using photovoltaic systems.................................... 10

2.2 Batteries .............................................................................................................................. 13

2.2.1 Battery Types and Classifications................................................................................ 13

2.2.2 Lead-Acid Batteries ..................................................................................................... 14

2.2.3 Nickel-Cadmium Batteries........................................................................................... 16

2.2.4 Specifying Batteries ..................................................................................................... 16

2.3.1 Types of controllers ..................................................................................................... 19

2.3.2 Blocking Reverse Current................................................................................................ 20

2.3.3 Preventing Overcharge................................................................................................. 20

2.3.4 Control Set Points vs. Temperature ............................................................................. 21

2.3.5 Control Set Points vs. Battery Type............................................................................. 21

2.3.6 Low Voltage Disconnect (LVD).................................................................................. 22

2.3.7 Overload Protection ..................................................................................................... 23

2.4 Inverters .............................................................................................................................. 23

CHAPTER 3: DESIGN................................................................................................................. 27

3.1 Photovoltaic system sizing.................................................................................................. 27

3.2 Photovoltaic system sizing worksheet instructions............................................................. 27

3.2.1 Estimating the Electric Load........................................................................................ 27

3.2.2 Specifying an Inverter.................................................................................................. 29

3.2.3 Sizing and specifying a battery .................................................................................... 30

3.2.4 Sizing and Specifying an Array ................................................................................... 32

3.2.5 Specifying a Controller ................................................................................................ 35

3.2.6 Summary of Steps for sizing........................................................................................ 36

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS.............................................................................................................. 39

4.1 Sample System Problem ..................................................................................................... 39

4.2 Stand-Alone PV System parameters................................................................................... 39

4.3 Sizing Worksheet Calculations ........................................................................................... 40

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 44

5.1 Problems encountered......................................................................................................... 44

5.3 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 45

APPENDIX A............................................................................................................................... 46

A1. Current situation of solar energy utilization in Kenya....................................................... 46

A.2 Available data sources on the solar energy potential......................................................... 46

A.2.1 World Radiation Data Centre (WRDC) ...................................................................... 46

APPENDIX B ............................................................................................................................... 50

B.1 Manufactures Data Sheets.................................................................................................. 50

Fig 1.1 Stand-Alone PV System…………………………………………………………....2

Fig 2.1 Solar Cell…………………………………………………………………………...4

Fig.2.2 Typical Current Voltage Curve of a Photovoltaic Module…………………….…..6

Fig 2.3 Effects of Decreased Insolation Effect and Cell Temperature………………….....7

Fig 2.4 (a) Series Controller (b) Shunt Controller………………………………………...19

Fig 3.2 50W Module Specification……………………………………………………......34