BY: V. P.

Singh
Assistant Professor
SMS, Varanasi
 The data, after collection, has to be processed
and analysed in accordance with the outline
laid down for the purpose at the time of
developing the research plan. This is essential
for a scientific study and for ensuring that we
have all relevant data for making
contemplated comparisons and analysis.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 2

 Technically speaking, processing implies editing,
coding, classification and tabulation of collected data
so that they are amenable to analysis.
 The term analysis refers to the computation of
certain measures along with searching for patterns
of relationship that exist among data-groups.
 Thus, “in the process of analysis, relationships or
differences supporting or conflicting with original or
new hypotheses should be subjected to statistical tests
of significance to determine with what validity data can
be said to indicate any conclusions”.
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 3
 1. Editing: Editing of data is a process of examining
the collected raw data (specially in surveys) to detect
errors and omissions and to correct these when
possible. As a matter of fact, editing involves a
careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires
and/or schedules.

 Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate,

consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly
entered, as completed as possible and have been well
arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 4
 With regard to points or stages at which editing should be done, one can
talk of field editing and central editing.
 Field editing consists in the review of the reporting forms by the
investigator for completing (translating or rewriting) what the latter has
written in abbreviated and/or in illegible format the time of recording the
respondents’ responses.
 This type of editing is necessary in view of the fact that individual
writing styles often can be difficult for others to decipher.
 This sort of editing should be done as soon as possible after the interview,
preferably on the very day or on the next day. While doing field editing,
the investigator must restrain himself and must not correct errors of
omission by simply guessing what the informant would have said if the
question had been asked.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 5

 Central editing should take place when all forms or
schedules have been completed and returned to the office.
This type of editing implies that all forms should get a
thorough editing by a single editor in a small study and by a
team of editors in case of a large inquiry.
 Editor(s) may correct the obvious errors such as an entry in
the wrong place, entry recorded in months when it should
have been recorded in weeks, and the like.
 In case of inappropriate on missing replies, the editor can
sometimes determine the proper answer by reviewing the
other information in the schedule.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 6

 2. Coding: Coding refers to the process of assigning
numerals or other symbols to answers so that responses
can be put into a limited number of categories or classes.
Such classes should be appropriate to the research problem
under consideration.
 They must also possess the characteristic of exhaustiveness
(i.e., there must be a class for every data item) and also that
of mutual exclusively which means that a specific answer
can be placed in one and only one cell in a given category
set. Another rule to be observed is that of unidimensionality
by which is meant that every class is defined in terms of
only one concept.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 7

 Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it the several
replies may be reduced to a small number of classes which contain the
critical information required for analysis.
 Coding decisions should usually be taken at the designing stage of the
questionnaire. This makes it possible to precode the questionnaire choices
and which in turn is helpful for computer tabulation as one can straight
forward key punch from the original questionnaires.
 But in case of hand coding some standard method may be used. One such
standard method is to code in the margin with a coloured pencil. The
other method can be to transcribe the data from the questionnaire to a
coding sheet. Whatever method is adopted, one should see that coding
errors are altogether eliminated or reduced to the minimum level.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 8

 3. Classification: Most research studies result in a large volume of raw
data which must be reduced into homogeneous groups if we are to get
meaningful relationships. This fact necessitates classification of data
which happens to be the process of arranging data in groups or classes on
the basis of common characteristics.
 Data having a common characteristic are placed in one class and in this
way the entire data get divided into a number of groups or classes.
 Classification can be one of the following two types, depending upon the
nature of the phenomenon involved:
 (a) Classification according to attributes
 (b) Classification according to class-intervals

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 9

 (a) Classification according to attributes: As stated above,
data are classified on the basis of common characteristics
which can either be descriptive (such as literacy, sex,
honesty, etc.) or numerical (such as weight, height, income,
etc.).

 Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative phenomenon

which cannot be measured quantitatively; only their
presence or absence in an individual item can be noticed.
Data obtained this way on the basis of certain attributes are
known as statistics of attributes and their classification is
said to be classification according to attributes.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 10

 (b) Classification according to class-intervals: Unlike descriptive
characteristics, the numerical characteristics refer to quantitative phenomenon
which can be measured through some statistical units. Data relating to income,
production, age, weight, etc. come under this category. Such data are known as
statistics of variables and are classified on the basis of class intervals.
 For instance, persons whose incomes, say, are within Rs 201 to Rs 400 canform
one group, those whose incomes are within Rs 401 to Rs 600 can form another
group and so on. In this way the entire data may be divided into a number of
groups or classes or what are usually called, ‘class-intervals.’ Each group of
class-interval, thus, has an upperlimit as well as a lower limit which are known
as class limits.
 The difference between the two class limits is known as class magnitude. We
may have classes with equal class magnitudes or with unequal class magnitudes.
The number of items which fall in a given class is known as the frequency of the
given class. All the classes or groups, with their respective frequencies taken
together and put in the form of a table, are described as group frequency
distribution or simply frequency distribution.
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 11
 4. Tabulation: When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes
necessary for the researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise
and logical order. This procedure is referred to as tabulation. Thus,
tabulation is the process of summarising raw data and displaying the
same in compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical tables) for further
analysis. In a broader sense, tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data
in columns and rows.
 Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons.
 1. It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement
to a minimum.
 2. It facilitates the process of comparison.
 3. It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and
omissions.
 4. It provides a basis for various statistical computations.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 12

 Tabulation can be done by hand or by mechanical or electronic devices.
The choice depends on the size and type of study, cost considerations,
time pressures and the availability of tabulating machines or computers.
 In relatively large inquiries, we may use mechanical or computer
tabulation if other factors are favourable and necessary facilities are
available.
 Hand tabulation is usually preferred in case of small inquiries where the
number of questionnaires is small and they are of relatively short length.
Hand tabulation may be done using the direct tally, the list and tally or
the card sort and count methods.
 When there are simple codes, it is feasible to tally directly from the
questionnaire. Under this method, the codes are written on a sheet of
paper, called tally sheet, and for each response a stroke is marked against
the code in which it falls.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 13

 Once the raw data is collected form both
primary and secondary sources, the next step is
to analyse the same so as to draw logical
inferences form them.
 The data collected in a survey could be
voluminous in nature, depending upon the size
of the sample.
 In a typical research study there may be a large
number of variables that the researcher needs to
analyse.
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 14
 The analysis could be:
 Univariate
 Bivariate
 Multivariate

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 15

 Univariate: In the univariate analysis, one
variable is analysed at a time.

 Bivariate : In the bivariate analysis two

variables are analysed together and examined
for any possible association between them.

 Multivariate : In the multivariate analysis, the

concern is to analyse more than two variables
at a time.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 16

 The data analysis could be of two types:
 Descriptive, and;
 Inferential

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 17

 Descriptive: It refers to transformation of raw data
into a form that will facilitate easy understanding
and interpretation.
 Descriptive analysis deals with summary measures
relating to the sample data.
 The common ways of summarizing data are by
calculating average, standard deviation, frequency
and percentage distribution.
 The first thing to do when data analysis is taken up
is to describe the sample.
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 18
 Below is the set of typical questions that are
required to be answered under descriptive
statistics:
 What is the average income of the sample?
 What is the average age of the sample?
 What is the standard deviation of ages in the sample?
 What is the standard deviation of incomes in the
sample?
 What percentage of sample respondents are married?

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 19

 Below is the set of typical questions that are required to be
answered under descriptive statistics:

 What is the median age of the sample respondents?

 Which income group has the highest number of user of product in

question in the sample?

 Is there any association between the frequency of purchase of product

and income level of the consumers?

 Is the level of job satisfaction related with the age of the employees?

 Which TV channel is viewed by the majority of viewers in the age

group 20-30 years?

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 20

 The type of descriptive analysis to be carried
out depends on the measurement of variables
into four forms:
 Nominal
 Ordinal
 Interval
 Ratio

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 21

 Types of
Type of Descriptive Analysis
Measurement

Nominal Frequency table, Proportion percentages, Mode

Median, Quartiles, Percentiles, Rank order

Ordinal
correlation

Interval Arithmetic mean, Correlation coefficient

Ratio Index numbers, Geometric mean, Harmonic mean

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 22
 Under inferential statistics, inferences are
drawn on population parameters based on
sample results.
 The researcher tries to generalize the results to
the population based on sample results.
 The analysis is based on probability theory and
a necessary condition for carrying out
inferential analysis is that the sample be drawn
at random.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 23

 The following is an illustrative list of questions
that are covered under inferential statistics:
 Is the average age of the population significantly
different form 35?
 Is the average income of population significantly
greater than 25,000 per month?
 Is the job satisfaction of unskilled workers significantly
related with their pay packet?
 Do the users and non-users of a brand vary
significantly with respect to age?
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 24
 The following is an illustrative list of questions
that are covered under inferential statistics:
 Is the growth in the sales of the company statistically
significant?
 Does the advertisement expenditure influences sale
significantly?
 Are consumption expenditure and disposable income
of households significantly correlated?
 Is the proportion of satisfied workers significantly
more for skilled workers than for unskilled works?
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 25
 It is also concerned with the estimation of
population values. It is mainly on the basis of
inferential analysis that the task of
interpretation (i.e., the task of drawing
inferences and conclusions) is performed.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 26

 A hypothesis is an assumption or an idea about a
phenomenon, relationship or situation, the
reality or truth of which we do not know.

 It is a statement logically formed an opinion on

the basis of relationships between two or more
variables.

 An opinion is made on the basis of theoretical

framework.
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 27
 For example:

 Customer oriented companies can make more business

than production oriented companies.

 Advertisements with child artists attract more audience

than those with adults.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 28

 Good Hypothesis:
 Must be adequate for its purpose
 Must be testable
 Must be better than its rivals

 Can be :
 Directional
 Non directional

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 29

 Once identify the important variables then
establish the relationship among them through
logical reasoning in the theoretical framework.

 Test the relationships validity.

 Get some reliable information about the existing

relationship.

 Get some test results and ideas to solve the

problem.
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 30
 Types :

 Null (H0)

 Alternative (H1)

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 31

 Null Hypothesis: A null hypothesis is a hypothesis
that says there is no statistical significance
between the two variables.

 Example: If a plant is fed club soda for one month

and another plant is fed plain water, there will be
no difference in growth between the two plants.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 32

 Alternate Hypothesis: The alternate hypothesis is
the hypothesis used in hypothesis testing that is
contrary to the null hypothesis.

 Example: If one plant is fed club soda for one

month and another plant is fed plain water, the
plant that is fed club soda will grow better* than
the plant that is fed with plain water.

 * One Directional/One Tailed

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 33
 One-tailed: A test is called one-sided (or one-
tailed) only if the null hypothesis gets rejected
when a value of the test statistics falls in one
specified tail of the distribution.

 Two-tailed tests: The test is called two-sided (or

two-tailed) if null hypothesis gets rejected when
a value of the test statistic falls in either one or
the other of the two tails of its sampling
distribution.
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 34
 For example : A soft drink bottling plant which dispenses
soft drinks in bottles of 300 ml capacity. The bottling is
done through an automatic plant. An overfilling of bottle
(liquid content more than 300 ml) means a huge loss to
the company given the large volume of sales.

 An underfilling means the customers are getting less than

300 ml of drink when they are paying for 300ml. This could
bring bad reputation to the company. The company wants
to avoid both overfilling and underfilling. Therefore, it
would prefer to test the hypothesis whether the mean
content of the bottles is different form 300ml.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 35

 For example : (Cont..)
 This hypothesis could be written as:
H0 : µ = 300 ml.
H1 : µ ≠ 300 ml.
The hypotheses stated above are called two-tailed or two-
sided hypotheses.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 36

 For example : (Cont..)
 However, if the concern is the overfilling of bottles, it could be stated
as:
H0 : µ = 300 ml.
H1 : µ > 300 ml.

Such hypotheses are called one-tailed or one-sided hypotheses and the

researcher would be interested in the upper tail (right hand tail) of the
distribution. If however, the concern is loss of reputation of the company
(underfilling of the bottles), the hypothesis may be stated as :
H0 : µ = 300 ml.
H1 : µ < 300 ml.

The hypothesis stated above is also called one-tailed test and the
researcher would be interested in the lower tail (left hand tail) of the
distribution.
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 37
 The acceptance or rejection of a hypothesis is
based upon sample results and there is always a
possibility of sample not being representative of
the population. This could result in errors as a
consequence of which inferences drawn could be
wrong. The situation could be depicted as given:
Accept H0 Reject H0
H0 True Correct decision Type 1 Error

Type II Error Correct decision

H0 False
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 38
 Type I Error : Type I error occurs when the sample results
lead to the rejection of the null hypothesis when it is in fact
true.

 The probability of type I error (α) is also called the level of

significance.
 Rejecting a true null hypothesis when it should NOT be
rejected.
 Considered a serious type of error

 The probability of Type I Error is α (alpha)

 It is also called level of significance of the test.
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 39
 Type II Error : Type II error occurs when, based on the
sample results, the null hypothesis is not rejected when it
is in fact false.
 The probability of type II error is denoted by β (Beta).

 Unlike α, which is specified by the researcher, the

magnitude of β depends on the actual value of the
population parameter (proportion)
 Fail to reject a false null hypothesis that should have
been rejected.
 The probability of Type II Error is β
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 40
Step 1: Formulate the Hypothesis:
 First step is to establish the hypothesis to be tested. As it is
known, these statistical hypotheses are generally
assumptions about the value of the population
parameter.

 The hypothesis specifies a single value or a range of

values for two different hypotheses rather than
constructing a single hypothesis. These two hypotheses
are generally referred to as the –
 Null hypothesis denoted by H0, and
 Alternative hypothesis denoted by H1
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 41
Step 1: Formulate the Hypothesis:
 If the null hypothesis H0 is rejected base upon the sample
information, the alternative hypothesis H1 is accepted.
 Therefore, the two hypotheses are constructed in such a way that
if one is true, the other one is false and vice versa.
 There can also be situations where the researcher is interested in
establishing the relationship between two variables. In such a
case, a null hypothesis is set as the hypothesis of no relationship
between those two variables; whereas the alternative hypothesis
is the relationship between variables.
 The rejection of the null hypothesis indicates that the difference /
relationship have a statistical significance and the acceptance of the
null hypothesis means that any difference / relationship is due to
chance.
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 42
Step 2: Setting up of a suitable significance level:
 The nest step in the testing of hypotheses exercise is to choose a suitable
level of significance.
 The level of significance denoted by α is chosen before drawing any
sample.
 The level of significance denotes the probability of rejecting the null
hypothesis when it is true. The value of alpha varies form problem to
problem, but usually it is taken as either 5 percent or 1 percent.
 A 5 % level of significance means that there are 5 chances out of hundred
that a null hypothesis will get rejected when it should be accepted.
 This means that the researcher is 95 % confident that a right decision has
been taken

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 43

Step 3: Determination of test statistic:

 The next step is to determine a suitable test statistic and its

distribution. As would be seen later, the test statistic could
be t, Z, x2 or F, depending upon various assumptions.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 44

Step 4: Determination of critical region:
 Before a sample is drawn from the population, it is very
important to specify the values of test statistic that will leas to
rejection or acceptance of the null hypothesis.

 The one that leads to the rejection of null hypothesis is called

the critical region.

 Given a level of significance, α , the optimal critical region for

a two-tailed test consists of that α/2 percent area in the right
hand tail of the distribution plus that α/2 percent in the left
hand tail of the distribution where that null hypothesis is
rejected. Therefore establishing a critical region is similar to
determining a 100(1- α) percent confidence
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh
interval. 45
Step 5: Computing the value of test-statistic:

 The next step is to compute the value of the test statistic

based upon a random sample size n.

 Once the value of test statistic is computed, one needs to

examine whether the sample results fall in the critical
region or in the acceptance region.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 46

Step 6: Making decision:
 The hypothesis may be rejected or accepted depending upon
whether the value of the test statistic falls in the rejection or the
acceptance region.
 Management decisions are based upon the statistical decision of
either rejecting or accepting the null hypothesis.
 If the hypothesis is being tested at 5 % level of significance, it
would be rejected if the observed results have a probability less than
5 %. In such a case, the difference between the sample statistic and
the hypothesized population parameter is considered to be
significant.
 On the other hand, if the hypothesized population parameter is not
regarded as significant and can be attributed to change.
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 47
In marketing research, the null hypothesis is formulated in
such a way that its rejection leads to the acceptance of the
desired conclusion. The alternate hypothesis represents the
conclusion for which evidence is sought.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 48

 Univariate Techniques

Metric Data Non-metric Data

(i.e., interval or ratio) (i.e., nominal, ordinal )

One sample
One Sample Two or More Two or more
Frequency, Chi- samples
T-test, Z-test Samples
square, K-S, etc

Independent
Independent Related
T-test Related
Chi-square Wilcoxon
Z-test Paired t-test
Mann-Whitney McNemar
One-way ANOVA
K-S etc Chi-square, etc

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 49

  First used by Karl Pearson
 Simplest and most widely used non-parametric test in statistical work.
 Calculated using the formula:
2
X2 = ∑ (O - E)
E
Where,
E = Expected frequency
O = Observed frequency
 Greater the discrepancy between observed and expected frequencies, greater
shall be the value of X2
 Calculated value of X2 is compared with table value of X2 for given degrees
of freedom.
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 50
 Application of chi-square test:
 Test of association (smoking & cancer, treatment &
outcome of disease, vaccination & immunity)

 Test of proportions (compare frequencies of diabetics

& non-diabetics in groups weighting 40-50 kg, 60 – 70
kg & > 70 kg.)

 The chi-square for goodness of fit (determine if actual

numbers are similar to the expected / theoretical
numbers)
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 51
 There are situations where the populations under
study are not normally distributed. The data
collected form these populations is extremely
skewed.

 In such a situation, an option could be used to

increase the sample size. This is because the central
limit theorem assumes that the distribution of sample
estimates approximately has a normal distribution for
large samples.

 The other option is use a Non-parametric test.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 52
 These tests are called the distribution-free tests as
they do not require any assumption regarding the
shape of the population distribution from where the
sample is drawn.

 However, some non-parametric tests do depend on

a parameter such as median but they do not require
a particular distribution for their application.

 These tests could also be used for the small sample

sizes where the normality assumption does not hold
true.
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 53
 They can be applied to many situations as they
do not have the rigid requirements of their
parametric counterparts. A researcher can
encounter an application where a numeric
observation is difficult to obtain but a rank
value is not. For example it is easy to obtain the
rank data on the preference of consumer for the
various brands of toothpaste rather than
assigning a numerical value to them.
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 54
 A lot of information is wasted because the exact
numerical data is reduced to a qualitative form.
For example, in one of the non-parametric tests
like the sign test, the increase or the gain is
denoted by a plus sign whereas a decrease or loss
is denoted by a negative sign. No consideration is
given to the quantity of the gain or loss. A gain of
Re. 1 or Rs. 1 Lakh would both receive a plus sign.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 55

 Non-parametric tests can often be applied to the
nominal and ordinal data that lack exact or
comparable numerical values. For example, the
respondents may be asked a question on their
religion – Hindu, Sikh, Christian or Muslim.
This is a nominal scale data and can only be
analysed by non-parametric methods.

 Non-parametric tests involve vey simple

computations compared to the corresponding
parametric tests.
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 56
 Non-parametric methods are less powerful than
parametric tests when the basic assumptions of
parametric tests are valid. Therefore, there is more
risk of accepting a false hypothesis and thus
committing a type II error.

 Null hypothesis in a non-parametric test is loosely

defined as compared to the parametric tests.
Therefore, whenever the null hypothesis is rejected, a
non-parametric test yields a less precise conclusion
as compared to the parametric test.
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 57
 Parametric Tests Non-Parametric Tests

Assumptions Normality assumption Normality assumption is

is required. not required.

Ordinal or interval scale

Uses of metric data.
data is used.

Can be applied for both

Can be applied for small
small and large
samples.
samples.
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 58
 One sample using Z or t One sample using the
Applications
statistics. test
Two independent Two independent samples
samples using a t or Z using the Mann-Whitney
test. U statistics
Two paired samples using
Two paired samples
the sign test and Wilcoxon
using a t or z test.
matched pair rank test.
Randomness – no test in Randomness – using runs
parametric is available test.
Several independent Several independent
samples using F test in samples using Kruskal-
ANOVA
Research Methodology Mr. V.wallis
P. Singh test. 59
 State the null and the alternative hypothesis about
a population.
 Specify a level significance.
 Compute the expected frequencies of the
occurrence of certain events under the assumption
that the null hypothesis true.
 Make a note of the observed counts of the data
points falling in different cells
 Compute the chi-square value given by the
formula
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 60
Where,
Oi = Observed frequency of i cell
Ei = Expected frequency of i cell

 Compare the sample value of the statistics as obtained in previous

step with the critical value at a given level of significance and
make the decision.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 61

 A business person wants to buy a restaurant, he
went to the current owner and asked the daily
footfall of customer during a week. Following data
was provided by the existing owner:
Days Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

Expected 10 10 15 20 30 15
Customers
%

But different observation was made by the business

person, which as under:
Observed 30 14 34 45 57 20
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 62
 Step 1: Formulating the hypothesis
 Null Hypothesis (H0) = Owner decision is correct
 Alternative Hypothesis (H1) = Owner decision not
correct
 Step 2: Specify a level of significance
 α = 0.05 (i.e. 5 %)

 Step 3 : Compute the expected frequency

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 63

 Total number of customers = 200
Days Monday Tuesday Wednesda Thursday Friday Saturday
y
Expected 10 10 15 20 30 15
Customers
%
(out of 200) 20 20 30 40 60 30
Observed

2 2
Chi-square = (20 – 10) +…………….. (30 – 15)
10 15
= 11.44
Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 64
 Step 4: Compare the chi-square value with the
table value at the assumed degree of freedom.

 If the calculated value is more than the table value

than we will reject the null hypothesis and vice-
versa.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 65

 Step 4: Compare the chi-square value with the
table value at the assumed degree of freedom.

 If the calculated value is more than the table value

than we will reject the null hypothesis and vice-
versa.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 66

 Sample size should be large (i.e. n > 30)

 Parent population form which sample is drawn

should follow Normal Distribution.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 67

 Comparison of Statistic with parameter.

 Comparison of Statistic with another statistic.

Research Methodology Mr. V. P. Singh 68

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 Set Null Hypothesis
 Set Alternative Hypothesis
 Level of Significance
 Test – Statistic
 Z = t – E(t)
S*E(t)

 Conclusion (Comparison of Z (calculated value) &

Zα (tabulated value))
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In a sample of 1000 people in Maharashtra 540 are rice eaters and the
remaining are wheat eaters. Can we assume that both rice and wheat
are equally popular in the state at 1% level of significance.
 Step 1
 H0 = rice and wheat are equally popular
 H1 = rice and wheat are not equally popular.

 Step 2
 P = ½ = 0.5 p = 540/1000 = 0.54
 Zα = 2.58
 Z = 0.54 – 0.50 = 0.04
S.E (p) √PQ/n
= 0.04 = 2.332
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In the given example the calculated value is less then tabulated value
at 1 % level of significance thus null hypothesis is rejected.

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 A t-test is a statistical test that is used to compare the means
of two groups.

 It is often used in hypothesis testing to determine whether a

process or treatment actually has an effect on the population
of interest, or whether two groups are different from one
another.

 A t-test can only be used when comparing the means of two.

 If you want to compare more than two groups, or if you

want to do multiple pairwise comparisons, use an ANOVA
test.
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 The t-test estimates the true difference between
two group means using the ratio of the difference
in group means over the pooled standard error of
both groups.

 You can calculate it manually using a formula or

using statistical analysis software.

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 T-test

Paired Unpaired
One sample
(Dependent) (Independent)

Degree of Freedom = N – 1 (The number of independent pieces of information on which

an approximation is based is known as degree of freedom)

Level of Significance = 0.05

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 T – Test (1908) W. S. Gosset (William Scaly Gosset)

 Ronald Fisher (Father of World Statistics)

 Student T – test / T – Distribution

 Small sample size (i.e. n < 30)

 Infinite and normal distribution (normality)

 Sample : Random and Independent

 Population variance is unknown and estimated form sample.

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 To assess means of two different group, if more than
two then ANOVA

 To test significance of mean of random variables

(Random and single variable)

 (One sample)t = (x - µ) .
S√n
S = S.D
µ = mean (population)
n = Sample size
x = mean (sample)
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S = S.D
µ = mean (population)
X = mean (population)
x = mean (sample)
n = sample sized (number of observation)
 If t value is greater than the Critical
value then reject the Null Hypothesis.

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