Jaime Banks
Texas Tech University, College of Media and Communication, Faculty Member
- West Virginia University, Communication Studies, Faculty Memberadd
- Self and Identity, Social Identity, Game studies, Computer Games Technology, Embodiment, Avatars, and 26 moreHuman Computer Interaction, Actor Network Theory, Video Games, Digital Games, Multiplayer Online Games, Social Media, Social Networks, Social Computing, Media and Embodiment, Gender, Virtual Worlds, Virtual Environments, MMORPG, New Media, Digital Media, Human-Nonhuman Assemblages, Social Robotics, Social Robotics, HRI Interaction, Philosophy of Social Robotics, Socially Assistive Robotics, Social Robotics, Roboethics, Human-Robot Interaction, Humanoid Robotics, Human Robot Interaction, Human-Machine Interaction, and Human-Machine Communicationedit
In the face of increasing public distrust for journalistic institutions, stories sourced from artificially intelligent (AI) journalists have the potential to lower hostile media bias by activating the machine heuristic—a mental shortcut... more
In the face of increasing public distrust for journalistic institutions, stories sourced from artificially intelligent (AI) journalists have the potential to lower hostile media bias by activating the machine heuristic—a mental shortcut assuming machines are more unbiased, systematic, and accurate than are humans. An online experiment targeting issue partisans found support for the prediction: a story presented as sourced from an AI journalist activated the machine heuristic that, in turn, mitigated hostile media bias. This mediation effect was moderated: perceived bias was more strongly reduced as partisan-attitude extremity increased.
Research Interests:
Human-robot collaborations that operate in shared spaces are anticipated to become increasingly common in coming years. Decades of social psychological research have revealed that human observers positively influence people's performance... more
Human-robot collaborations that operate in shared spaces are anticipated to become increasingly common in coming years. Decades of social psychological research have revealed that human observers positively influence people's performance in dominant and negatively in nondominant tasks. While studies indicate moderate support for social facilitation/inhibition effects with robot observers, this evidence is hotly debated. Addressing known methodological criticism, this study investigates how a copresent robot-observer affects Stroop task performance and whether perceptions of that robot's mental capacities have explanatory value. Results reveal limitations in transferring social facilitation/inhibition theory to robots. Since participants reported high task attention levels across conditions, emerging flow states may have helped them circumvent social facilitation/inhibition mechanisms. It may thus be recommended for future research to consider flow dynamics when investigating social performance effects.
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In playing videogames, players often create avatars as extensions of agency into those spaces, where the player-avatar relationship (PAR) both shapes gameplay and is the product of gameplay experiences. Avatars are generally understood as... more
In playing videogames, players often create avatars as extensions of agency into those spaces, where the player-avatar relationship (PAR) both shapes gameplay and is the product of gameplay experiences. Avatars are generally understood as singular bodies; however, we argue they are functional and phenomenological assemblages-networks of social and technological components that are internalized by players as networks of knowledge about the avatar. Different PARs are based on different internalizations (i.e., mental models) for what an avatar is and why it matters. Toward illuminating nuances in PARs, we examine the content and structure of players' internalizations of avatars as evidenced by descriptions of those digital bodies. Secondary analysis of N = 1,201 avatar descriptions parceled them by PAR type (avatars as asocial Objects, psychologically merged extensions of Me, hybrid me/other Symbiotes, and authentically social Other). Aggregated descriptions for each PAR type were subjected to semantic network analysis to identify patterns in salient avatar components, and then qualitatively compared across the four PARs. Results indicate component clusters that are universal to PARs (demographics and body features), common to three of four PARs (time, appearance, clothing, and player agency), and idiosyncratic to specific PARs (significance, character narratives, game dynamics, liminality, and gratifications). Findings signal the importance of theoretically engaging avatars as assemblages both (a) influenced by player-avatar sociality and (b) that contribute (in part and whole) to antecedents, processes, and effects of gameplay.
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Moral status can be understood along two dimensions: moral agency [capacities to be and do good (or bad)] and moral patiency (extents to which entities are objects of moral concern), where the latter especially has implications for how... more
Moral status can be understood along two dimensions: moral agency [capacities to be and do good (or bad)] and moral patiency (extents to which entities are objects of moral concern), where the latter especially has implications for how humans accept or reject machine agents into human social spheres. As there is currently limited understanding of how people innately understand and imagine the moral patiency of social robots, this study inductively explores key themes in how robots may be subject to humans' (im)moral action across 12 valenced foundations in the moral matrix: care/harm, fairness/unfairness, loyalty/betrayal, authority/subversion, purity/degradation, liberty/oppression. Findings indicate that people can imagine clear dynamics by which anthropomorphic, zoomorphic, and mechanomorphic robots may benefit and suffer at the hands of humans (e.g., affirmations of personhood, compromising bodily integrity, veneration as gods, corruption by physical or information interventions). Patterns across the matrix are interpreted to suggest that moral patiency may be a function of whether people diminish or uphold the ontological boundary between humans and machines, though even moral upholdings bare notes of utilitarianism.
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Frames-discursive structures that make dimensions of a situation more or less salient-are understood to influence how people understand novel technologies. As technological agents are increasingly integrated into society, it becomes... more
Frames-discursive structures that make dimensions of a situation more or less salient-are understood to influence how people understand novel technologies. As technological agents are increasingly integrated into society, it becomes important to discover how native understandings (i.e., individual frames) of social robots are associated with how they are characterized by media, technology developers, and even the agents themselves (i.e., produced frames). Moreover, these individual and produced frames may influence the ways in which people see social robots as legitimate and trustworthy agents-especially in the face of (im)moral behavior. This three-study investigation begins to address this knowledge gap by 1) identifying individually held frames for explaining an android's (im)moral behavior, and experimentally testing how produced frames prime judgments about an android's morally ambiguous behavior in 2) mediated representations and 3) face-to-face exposures. Results indicate that people rely on discernible ground rules to explain social robot behaviors; these frames induced only limited effects on responsibility judgments of that robot's morally ambiguous behavior. Evidence also suggests that technophobia-induced reactance may move people to reject a produced frame in favor of a divergent individual frame.
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People often engage human-interaction schemas in human-robot interactions, so notions of prototypicality are useful in examining how interactions' formal features shape perceptions of social robots. We argue for a typology of three... more
People often engage human-interaction schemas in human-robot interactions, so notions of prototypicality are useful in examining how interactions' formal features shape perceptions of social robots. We argue for a typology of three higher-order interaction forms (social, task, play) comprising identifiable-but-variable patterns in agents, content, structures, outcomes, context, norms. From that ground, we examined whether participants' judgments about a social robot (mind, morality, and trust perceptions) differed across prototypical interactions. Findings indicate interaction forms somewhat influence trust but not mind or morality evaluations. However, how participants perceived interactions (independent of form) were more impactful. In particular, perceived task interactions fostered functional trust, while perceived play interactions fostered moral trust and attitude shift over time. Hence, prototypicality in interactions should not consider formal properties alone but must also consider how people perceive interactions according to prototypical frames.
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This study seeks to advance how intergroup dynamics can help us better understand the relations between humans and robots. Intergroup contact theory states that negative feelings toward an outgroup can be reduced through controlled... more
This study seeks to advance how intergroup dynamics can help us better understand the relations between humans and robots. Intergroup contact theory states that negative feelings toward an outgroup can be reduced through controlled intergroup contact. This study tests this theory by having study participants interact with either a human (member of the ingroup) or large humanoid robot (member of an outgroup) and measuring changes in social distance before and after the interaction. The findings suggest that robotkind is a distinct social group separate from humankind and as predicted by intergroup contact theory, exposure to a specific robot can override held prejudices against robots as a social group.
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Affective disposition theory explains that the perceived morality of characters plays a critical role in the experience of enjoyment, but is challenged by the apparent appeal of morally ambiguous characters (MACs). Therefore, it is... more
Affective disposition theory explains that the perceived morality of characters plays a critical role in the experience of enjoyment, but is challenged by the apparent appeal of morally ambiguous characters (MACs). Therefore, it is important to examine the role of morality in enjoyment and to understand how viewers perceive characters of varying moral natures. Although previous research has indicated that different character types might have different patterns of moral upholding/violation, a recent study found that character types, including types of MACs, were not perceived to vary on specific moral foundations, but did vary in overall perceived morality across all foundations. To further examine whether distinct character types are perceived to have different patterns of perceived morality, this study replicated that recent study in a sample of US young adults, again finding that character types did not vary according to specific moral domains. However, findings associating perceived morality and entertainment outcomes did not replicate. This study contributes to entertainment research by demonstrating the reproducibility of these results and considering alternative explanations to those offered by the authors of the original study.
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Tandem advances in mobile technologies and social networks have given rise to app-initiated romantic relationships. Little is understood, however, about the role of the device in this initiation. This experimental study explored the... more
Tandem advances in mobile technologies and social networks have given rise to app-initiated romantic relationships. Little is understood, however, about the role of the device in this initiation. This experimental study explored the impact of “mere holding” of mobile devices on impressions formed when consuming dating app content. Mere holding (compared to no-touch viewing) was associated with reduced attraction, ascribed personhood, and psychological ownership. Findings suggest that holding may be experienced as a false realization of potential relationships through physical engagement of devices; theoretically, this realization may be understood as an inversion of interpersonal haptic nonverbals, as holding is less about interpersonal intimacy and more about heuristic engagement with the other as an object. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved)
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ationale: Mental and behavioral health recovery includes concepts related not just to symptom improvement, but also to participating in activities that contribute to wellness and a meaningful life. Video game play can relieve stress and... more
ationale: Mental and behavioral health recovery includes concepts related not just to symptom improvement, but also to participating in activities that contribute to wellness and a meaningful life. Video game play can relieve stress and provide a way to connect, which may be especially important for military veterans.
Objective: We examined how military veterans used video game play to further their mental and behavioral health recovery by conducting an exploratory thematic analysis of the gaming habits of 20 United States military veterans who were in treatment for mental or behavioral health problems.
Method: We conducted semi-structured interviews in 2016 and used a framework analytic approach to determine salient themes linking video gaming to mental and behavioral health recovery.
Results: Veteran participants reported that video games helped not only with managing moods and stress, but also with three areas related to other aspects of recovery: adaptive coping (e.g. distraction, control, symptom substitution); eudaimonic well-being (confidence, insight, role functioning); and socializing (participation, support, brotherhood). Meaning derived from game narratives and characters, exciting or calming gameplay, and opportunities to connect, talk, and lead others were credited as benefits of gaming. Responses often related closely to military or veteran experiences. At times, excessive use of games led to life problems or feeling addicted, but some veterans with disabilities felt the advantages of extreme play outweighed these problems.
Conclusion: Video games seem to provide some veterans with a potent form of "personal medicine" that can promote recovery. Although reasons and results of gaming may vary within and among individuals, clinicians may wish to discuss video game play with their patients to help patients optimize their use of games to support recovery.
Objective: We examined how military veterans used video game play to further their mental and behavioral health recovery by conducting an exploratory thematic analysis of the gaming habits of 20 United States military veterans who were in treatment for mental or behavioral health problems.
Method: We conducted semi-structured interviews in 2016 and used a framework analytic approach to determine salient themes linking video gaming to mental and behavioral health recovery.
Results: Veteran participants reported that video games helped not only with managing moods and stress, but also with three areas related to other aspects of recovery: adaptive coping (e.g. distraction, control, symptom substitution); eudaimonic well-being (confidence, insight, role functioning); and socializing (participation, support, brotherhood). Meaning derived from game narratives and characters, exciting or calming gameplay, and opportunities to connect, talk, and lead others were credited as benefits of gaming. Responses often related closely to military or veteran experiences. At times, excessive use of games led to life problems or feeling addicted, but some veterans with disabilities felt the advantages of extreme play outweighed these problems.
Conclusion: Video games seem to provide some veterans with a potent form of "personal medicine" that can promote recovery. Although reasons and results of gaming may vary within and among individuals, clinicians may wish to discuss video game play with their patients to help patients optimize their use of games to support recovery.
Research Interests:
Identification is understood to be central to player–avatar relations in digital games however, extant literature is fragmented. Scholars tend to either treat discrete features of identification as equivalent to the broader construct or... more
Identification is understood to be central to player–avatar relations in digital games however, extant literature is fragmented. Scholars tend to either treat discrete features of identification as equivalent to the broader construct or use a rigid, monothetic measurement architecture that potentially excludes some who may actually identify with a game avatar. Toward a more inclusive model, then, this study integrated different factors culled from the literature to develop a more comprehensive measurement scheme in which physical similarity, value homophily, wishful identification, perspective-taking, liking, and embodiment are all subconstructs that fall under the larger umbrella of the player–avatar identification construct. The second-order factor structure suggests the construct to be more complex than is currently engaged in the literature, and a polythetic approach to measuring identification is proposed for understanding gamers’ connections with their avatars. (APA PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved)
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Although current social machine technology cannot fully exhibit the hallmarks of human morality or agency, popular culture representations and emerging technology make it increasingly important to examine human interlocutors’ perception... more
Although current social machine technology cannot fully exhibit the hallmarks of human morality or agency, popular culture representations and emerging technology make it increasingly important to examine human interlocutors’ perception of social machines (e.g., digital assistants, chatbots, robots) as moral agents. To facilitate such scholarship, the notion of perceived moral agency (PMA) is proposed and defined, and a metric developed and validated through two studies: (1) a large-scale online survey featuring potential scale items and concurrent validation metrics for both machine and human targets, and (2) a scale validation study with robots presented as variably agentic and moral. The PMA metric is shown to be reliable, valid, and exhibiting predictive utility. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved)
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The connection between player and avatar is understood to be central to the experience and effects of massively multiplayer online (MMO) gaming experiences, and these connections emerge from the interplays of both social and ludic... more
The connection between player and avatar is understood to be central to the experience and effects of massively multiplayer online (MMO) gaming experiences, and these connections emerge from the interplays of both social and ludic characteristics. The comprehensive social/ludic measure of this player-avatar interaction (PAX), however, features some dimensions with theoretical/operational gaps and limited reliability, and is available only in English (despite evidence of potential cultural variations in player-avatar relations). The present study aimed to a) enhance and refine the PAX metric, and b) translate and validate a common metric that bridges English, German, and traditional Chinese languages to facilitate future comparative research. Through exploratory factor analysis of data from MMO players in each of these language-based populations, an improved 15-item common Player Avatar Interaction (cPAX) scale is presented, with four dimensions: relational closeness, anthropomorphic autonomy, critical concern, and sense of control. The metric is shown to be reliable within and across populations, and construct validity tests show expected associations between scale dimensions and both player-avatar relationship types and senses of human-like relatedness.
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Popular culture is rich with transmedia storytelling—the adaptation of narrative universes from one medium to another—and although much work has attended to audience uses and gratifications of discrete media, little is known about... more
Popular culture is rich with transmedia storytelling—the adaptation of narrative universes from one medium to another—and although much work has attended to audience uses and gratifications of discrete media, little is known about audience motivations for shifting from one medium to another. This study takes a step toward bridging that gap through thematic analysis of videogame fans’ gratifications sought in viewing the inaugural films of two established videogame franchises: Assassin’s Creed and Warcraft. Emergent themes—entertainment, expanded experience, personal fan development, community/franchise legitimization, and personal connection to the film—were largely consistent across both franchises (with variations explained by each franchise’s maturity and fan norms). Although some gratifications are consistent with those of discrete media, discovered themes also reveal a) a more extrinsic and communal orientation toward franchises receiving the “big screen treatment” as a mark for the health, welfare, and cultural legitimacy of the franchise and fan community, and b) considerations of the target medium as both the source and referent of gratification such that the medium is a gratifying thing-in-itself.
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This study investigated how player-avatar interaction (PAX) and player-avatar relationship (PAR) are associated with spatial presence, social presence, and self-presence in video games, and additionally how the associations differ between... more
This study investigated how player-avatar interaction (PAX) and player-avatar relationship (PAR) are associated with spatial presence, social presence, and self-presence in video games, and additionally how the associations differ between Chinese and American players. American and Chinese players were recruited to answer a survey king about these variables. The survey was translated from English to Chinese for the different samples. Regression models and ANOVA analysis were used to analyze data, and the results revealed several significant associations between dimensions of PAX and the three types of presence. Additionally, results indicated that player-avatar relationships characterized by identity play and extension are generally associated with higher level of presence than the other two relationship types. Cultural differences were also found, with American and Chinese players differing in how PAR associated with social presence. Thus, the present study adds more understanding to presence in video game, avatar-moderated gameplay, and cross-cultural differences in video gaming, and suggests avenues for future research.
Research Interests:
Communicating with others is a key motivation for playing digital games, but associated gratifications often require the presence of and interaction with other agents that may be inherently demanding. This demand has been characterized as... more
Communicating with others is a key motivation for playing digital games, but associated gratifications often require the presence of and interaction with other agents that may be inherently demanding. This demand has been characterized as emerging from intersections of implicit or explicit awareness of and implicit or explicit response to the social other. To explore phenomenological dimensions of this concept—nascent in relation to immersive digital environments—this study explored online gamers’ assessments of the demands of encountering an unknown avatar in a massively multiplayer online game (MMO). After experiencing a survey-based, simulated encounter, players were asked to describe the ease or effortfulness of such an interpersonal encounter. In these descriptions, emergent thematic analysis identified six key factors in degrees of experienced demand: individual differences in personality and skill, environmental and social contexts of encounters, awareness of identity and agency boundaries in the online environment, game culture norms for interaction, perceived interaction value, and anticipations for how a communicative episode would unfold. Findings suggest that although social demand has, to date, been characterized as emerging from the game itself, it may be best understood as a function of the intersection of micro-level (intrapersonal), meso-level (interpersonal), and macro-level (cultural/situational) communicative factors.
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Technological and social evolutions have prompted operational, phenomenological, and ontological shifts in communication processes. These shifts, we argue, trigger the need to regard human and machine roles in communication processes in a... more
Technological and social evolutions have prompted operational, phenomenological, and ontological shifts in communication processes. These shifts, we argue, trigger the need to regard human and machine roles in communication processes in a more egalitarian fashion. Integrating anthropocentric and technocentric perspectives on communication, we propose an agent-agnostic framework for human-machine communication. This framework rejects exclusive assignment of communicative roles (sender, message, channel, receiver) to traditionally held agents and instead focuses on evaluating agents according to their functions as a means for considering what roles are held in communication processes. As a first step in advancing this agent-agnostic perspective, this theoretical paper offers three potential criteria that both humans and machines could satisfy: agency, interactivity, and influence. Future research should extend our agent-agnostic framework to ensure that communication theory will be prepared to deal with an ostensibly machine-inclusive future.
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Replies to comments by E. McDade-Montez and R. A. Dore (see record 2020-23340-001) on the article by E. P. Downs et al. (see record 2017-54857-001). McDade-Montez and Dore are concerned that the Downs et al. assertion that identification... more
Replies to comments by E. McDade-Montez and R. A. Dore (see record 2020-23340-001) on the article by E. P. Downs et al. (see record 2017-54857-001). McDade-Montez and Dore are concerned that the Downs et al. assertion that identification can be considered a polythetic construct is premature for three reasons: (a) the lack of a formalized definition of identification, (b) conceptual challenges with identification being polythetic, and (c) empirical challenges with data supporting a polythetic architecture for identification (the Polythetic Identification Scale, or PID). We recognize our colleagues’ concerns on all three points and indeed, on some aspects of their critique, we feel that McDade-Montez and Dore and Downs et al. are more aligned in their thoughts than what might appear. On other points, we counter our colleagues’ concerns by offering clarifications to the Downs et al. article. Our responses to the three main points follow the general structure of McDade-Montez and Dore’s commentary.
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Authors: Dienlin, T., Johannes, N., Bowman, N.D., Masur, P.K., Engesser, S., Kümpel, A.S., Lukito, J., Bier, L.K., Zhang, R., Huskey, R., Schneider, F.M., Breuer, J., Parry, D.A., Vermuelen, I., Fisher, J.T., Banks, J., Weber, R., Ellis,... more
Authors: Dienlin, T., Johannes, N., Bowman, N.D., Masur, P.K., Engesser, S., Kümpel, A.S., Lukito, J., Bier, L.K., Zhang, R., Huskey, R., Schneider, F.M., Breuer, J., Parry, D.A., Vermuelen, I., Fisher, J.T., Banks, J., Weber, R., Ellis, D.A., Smits, T., Ivory, J.D., Trepte, S., McEwan, B., Rinke, E.M., Neubaum, G., Winter, S., Carpenter, C.J., Krämer, N., Utz, S., Unkel, J., Davidson, B.I., Kim, N., Won, A.S., Domahidi, E., Lewis, N.A., de Vreese, C.
In the last 10 years, many canonical findings in the social sciences appear unreliable. This so-called “replication crisis” has spurred calls for open science practices, which aim to increase the reproducibility, replicability, and generalizability of findings. Communication research is subject to many of the same challenges that have caused low replicability in other fields. As a result, we propose an agenda for adopting open science practices in Communication, which includes the following seven suggestions: (1) publish materials, data, and code; (2) preregister studies and submit registered reports; (3) conduct replications; (4) collaborate; (5) foster open science skills; (6) implement Transparency and Openness Promotion Guidelines; and (7) incentivize open science practices. Although in our agenda we focus mostly on quantitative research, we also reflect on open science practices relevant to qualitative research. We conclude by discussing potential objections and concerns associated with open science practices.
In the last 10 years, many canonical findings in the social sciences appear unreliable. This so-called “replication crisis” has spurred calls for open science practices, which aim to increase the reproducibility, replicability, and generalizability of findings. Communication research is subject to many of the same challenges that have caused low replicability in other fields. As a result, we propose an agenda for adopting open science practices in Communication, which includes the following seven suggestions: (1) publish materials, data, and code; (2) preregister studies and submit registered reports; (3) conduct replications; (4) collaborate; (5) foster open science skills; (6) implement Transparency and Openness Promotion Guidelines; and (7) incentivize open science practices. Although in our agenda we focus mostly on quantitative research, we also reflect on open science practices relevant to qualitative research. We conclude by discussing potential objections and concerns associated with open science practices.
Research Interests:
Media influence people's perceptions of reality broadly and of technology in particular. Robot villains and heroes—from Ultron to Wall-E—have been shown to serve a specific cultivation function, shaping people's perceptions of those... more
Media influence people's perceptions of reality broadly and of technology in particular. Robot villains and heroes—from Ultron to Wall-E—have been shown to serve a specific cultivation function, shaping people's perceptions of those embodied social technologies, especially when individuals do not have direct experience with them. To date, however, little is understood about the nature of the conceptions people hold for what robots are, how they work, and how they may function in society, as well as the media antecedents and relational effects of those cognitive structures. This study takes a step toward bridging that gap by exploring relationships among individuals' recall of robot characters from popular media, their mental models for actual robots, and social evaluations of an actual robot. Findings indicate that mental models consist of a small set of common and tightly linked components (beyond which there is a good deal of individual difference), but robot character recall and evaluation have little association with whether people hold any of those components. Instead, data are interpreted to suggest that cumulative sympathetic evaluations of robot media characters may form heuristics that are primed by and engaged in social evaluations of actual robots, while technical content in mental models is associated with a more utilitarian approach to actual robots.
Research Interests:
Invoking Tuan's cultural-geographic notion of sense of place (SoP), the current study examined the potential for videogame play to foster a sense of affective familiarity with (emotional connection) and abstract understanding of (place... more
Invoking Tuan's cultural-geographic notion of sense of place (SoP), the current study examined the potential for videogame play to foster a sense of affective familiarity with (emotional connection) and abstract understanding of (place recollection) actual, physical locations rendered in digital environments. A total of 556 players of Fallout 76 were asked about their sense of place for and recollecion of West Virginia two weeks prior to the game's launch (T1), with follow-up questions two weeks (T2) and two months (T3) following the game's launch. SoP scores were compared between West Virginia natives and non-natives, under the expectation that natives would have greater SoP scores prior to gameplay. The expected T1 SoP gap was found, but this gap closed for all players at T2, with non-natives experiencing a significant increase in their SoP for West Virginia on par with natives' feelings of the same. This effect held for non-natives still playing Fallout 76 at T3; for those no longer playing, T3 SoP scores returned to T1 (pre-play) levels. Effects on place recollection (such as recalling location names) were similar, but less pronounced. Although an early exploration into SoP and videogames, these data have implications for SoP considerations in videogame research and design.
Research Interests:
Theory of Mind is an inferential system central to human–human communication by which people ascribe mental states to self and other, and then use those deductions to make predictions about others’ behaviors. Despite the likelihood that... more
Theory of Mind is an inferential system central to human–human communication by which people ascribe mental states to
self and other, and then use those deductions to make predictions about others’ behaviors. Despite the likelihood that ToM
may also be central to interactions with other types of agents exhibiting similar cues, it is not yet fully known whether humans
develop ToM for mechanical agents exhibiting properties of intelligence and sociality. A suite of five tests for implicit ToM
were performed (white lie test, behavioral intention task, facial affect inference, vocal affect inference, and false-belief test)
for three different robots and a human control. Findings suggest that implicit ToM signals are consistent across variably
human-like robots and humans, so long as the social cues are similar and interpretable, but there is no association between
implicit ToM signals and explicit mind ascription; findings suggest that heuristics and deliberation of mental status of robots
may compete with implicit social-cognitive reactions.
self and other, and then use those deductions to make predictions about others’ behaviors. Despite the likelihood that ToM
may also be central to interactions with other types of agents exhibiting similar cues, it is not yet fully known whether humans
develop ToM for mechanical agents exhibiting properties of intelligence and sociality. A suite of five tests for implicit ToM
were performed (white lie test, behavioral intention task, facial affect inference, vocal affect inference, and false-belief test)
for three different robots and a human control. Findings suggest that implicit ToM signals are consistent across variably
human-like robots and humans, so long as the social cues are similar and interpretable, but there is no association between
implicit ToM signals and explicit mind ascription; findings suggest that heuristics and deliberation of mental status of robots
may compete with implicit social-cognitive reactions.
Research Interests:
From social-network spambots and forensic chatbots to dating simulation games, sexual communication with machines is not uncommon in contemporary culture—however, it remains effectively a black-box phenomenon. There is little empirical... more
From social-network spambots and forensic chatbots to dating simulation games, sexual communication with machines is not
uncommon in contemporary culture—however, it remains effectively a black-box phenomenon. There is little empirical research
examining how sexual human–machine communication (HMC-S) is experienced, whether it is impactful, or whether it may be
similar or different to human–human sexual communication. Advancing our understanding of those questions is vital in
understanding the potential for machine partners to foster the health and welfare benefits, as well as the potential to have negative
impacts. This study takes a first step in considering experiential parity or divergence by experimentally investigating 271 people’s
cybersex experience with a chat partner that was visually and textually cued as a human or a machine. Multimethod analysis suggests
there may be no difference in gratifications from sex chat with ostensible machine versus human partners; however, participants
seem to experience tensions between the gratifications and shortcomings of cybersex with machine-cued partners.
uncommon in contemporary culture—however, it remains effectively a black-box phenomenon. There is little empirical research
examining how sexual human–machine communication (HMC-S) is experienced, whether it is impactful, or whether it may be
similar or different to human–human sexual communication. Advancing our understanding of those questions is vital in
understanding the potential for machine partners to foster the health and welfare benefits, as well as the potential to have negative
impacts. This study takes a first step in considering experiential parity or divergence by experimentally investigating 271 people’s
cybersex experience with a chat partner that was visually and textually cued as a human or a machine. Multimethod analysis suggests
there may be no difference in gratifications from sex chat with ostensible machine versus human partners; however, participants
seem to experience tensions between the gratifications and shortcomings of cybersex with machine-cued partners.
Research Interests:
Both robots and humans can behave in ways that engender positive and negative evaluations of their behaviors and associated responsibility. However, extant scholarship on the link between agent evaluations and valenced behavior has... more
Both robots and humans can behave in ways that engender positive and negative evaluations of their behaviors and associated
responsibility. However, extant scholarship on the link between agent evaluations and valenced behavior has generally treated
moral behavior as a monolithic phenomenon and largely focused on moral deviations. In contrast, contemporary moral
psychology increasingly considers moral judgments to unfold in relation to a number of moral foundations (care, fairness,
authority, loyalty, purity, liberty) subject to both upholding and deviation. The present investigation seeks to discover whether
social judgments of humans and robots emerge differently as a function of moral foundation-specific behaviors. This work is
conducted in two studies: (1) an online survey in which agents deliver observed/mediated responses to moral dilemmas and (2)
a smaller laboratory-based replication with agents delivering interactive/live responses. In each study, participants evaluate the
goodness of and blame for six foundation-specific behaviors, and evaluate the agent for perceived mind, morality, and trust.
Across these studies, results suggest that (a) moral judgments of behavior may be agent-agnostic, (b) all moral foundations
may contribute to social evaluations of agents, and (c) physical presence and agent class contribute to the assignment of
responsibility for behaviors. Findings are interpreted to suggest that bad behaviors denote bad actors, broadly, but machines
bear a greater burden to behave morally, regardless of their credit- or blame-worthiness in a situation.
responsibility. However, extant scholarship on the link between agent evaluations and valenced behavior has generally treated
moral behavior as a monolithic phenomenon and largely focused on moral deviations. In contrast, contemporary moral
psychology increasingly considers moral judgments to unfold in relation to a number of moral foundations (care, fairness,
authority, loyalty, purity, liberty) subject to both upholding and deviation. The present investigation seeks to discover whether
social judgments of humans and robots emerge differently as a function of moral foundation-specific behaviors. This work is
conducted in two studies: (1) an online survey in which agents deliver observed/mediated responses to moral dilemmas and (2)
a smaller laboratory-based replication with agents delivering interactive/live responses. In each study, participants evaluate the
goodness of and blame for six foundation-specific behaviors, and evaluate the agent for perceived mind, morality, and trust.
Across these studies, results suggest that (a) moral judgments of behavior may be agent-agnostic, (b) all moral foundations
may contribute to social evaluations of agents, and (c) physical presence and agent class contribute to the assignment of
responsibility for behaviors. Findings are interpreted to suggest that bad behaviors denote bad actors, broadly, but machines
bear a greater burden to behave morally, regardless of their credit- or blame-worthiness in a situation.
Research Interests:
Cues delivered by agents are known to trigger mental shortcuts associated with ontological category, or the kind of thing an agent is. Two such heuristics are key to considering organic and machine agents and result in biased evaluations:... more
Cues delivered by agents are known to trigger mental shortcuts associated with ontological category, or the kind of thing an agent is. Two such heuristics are key to considering organic and machine agents and result in biased evaluations: the machine heuristic (technology is systematic/unbiased therefore its products are good) and the nature heuristic (natural things are pure/innate therefore anything natural is good). As machine agents such as robots are increasingly integrated into human spheres, it is yet unknown (a) if invocation of agent-cued heuristics is inherently tied to activities and (b) whether either/both heuristics are evoked when agents exhibit both organic and machinic properties (as with cyborgs). To investigate these open questions, a 3x2 experiment tasked individuals with considering a magazine article about an agent (organism, cyborg, robot) performing behaviors (natural, technical) to solve a widespread problem, and then evaluating the agent and its solution for markers of machine and nature heuristics. Findings indicate that the nature heuristic may be dominant over the machine heuristic, however, this primacy may be driven by operational contexts. Post-hoc analysis suggests that agent category grounds interpretations of agent behaviors that, in turn, drive biased evaluations of behavioral outcomes.
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Mentalizing is the process of inferencing others’ mental states and contributes to an inferential system known as Theory of Mind (ToM)—a system that is critical to human interactions as it facilitates sense-making and prediction of future... more
Mentalizing is the process of inferencing others’ mental states and contributes to an inferential system known as Theory of Mind (ToM)—a system that is critical to human interactions as it facilitates sense-making and prediction of future behaviors. As technological agents like social robots increasingly exhibit hallmarks of intellectual and social agency—and are increasingly integrated into contemporary social life—it is not yet fully understood whether humans hold ToM for such agents. To build on extant research in this domain, five canonical tests that signal implicit mentalizing (white lie detection, intention inferencing, facial affect interpretation, vocal affect interpretation, and false-belief detection) were conducted for an agent (anthropomorphic or machinic robots, or a human) through video-presented (Study 1) and physically co-present interactions (Study 2). Findings suggest that mentalizing tendencies for robots and humans are more alike than different, however use of non-literal language, co-present interactivity, and reliance on agent-class heuristics may reduce tendencies to mentalize robots.
Research Interests:
Despite the increasing convergence of digital, physical, and immaterial dimensions of game characters, little attention has been paid to the role of materiality in how gamers connect with the characters they play. This study evaluated... more
Despite the increasing convergence of digital, physical, and immaterial dimensions of game characters, little attention has been paid to the role of materiality in how gamers connect with the characters they play. This study evaluated potential differences in character identification and interaction in a gaming context affording various character materialities: the role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons. Multimethod analysis of online survey data (N ¼ 1,135) reveals that character identification and interaction dimensions were invariant across primary character-representation mode (figurine, physical image, digital image, written, and imagined); however, post-hoc analysis suggests that multimaterial assemblages and social factors are key in how character representations are linked to character relations. Following, we argue that game characters may be more appropriately understood as subjective experiences rather than varying according to a given digital or physical manifestation.
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Research has established that students often consider the delivery of instructor feedback to be a face-threatening event. To minimize the potential negative effects of feedback, verbal and nonverbal face-threat mitigation (FTM) strategies... more
Research has established that students often consider the delivery of instructor feedback to be a face-threatening event. To minimize the potential negative effects of feedback, verbal and nonverbal face-threat mitigation (FTM) strategies are utilized by instructors. Advances in digital feedback systems, like online documents and learning management platforms, allow instructors to add nonverbal elements, such as profile pictures or emojis, to this feedback. Two mixed-method studies were employed to investigate the role of these nonverbal cues in digital feedback. Study 1 (N = 236) employed a 2 by 2 experiment (presence or absence of FTM tactics by presence or absence of instructor picture), showing that FTM strategies have substantial positive impact on feedback and instructor perceptions, and that the inclusion of instructor pictures with this feedback has no effect. Study 2 (N = 218) utilized a 2 by 2 experimental design (presence or absence of FTM tactics by presence or absence of matched-valence emojis). Results confirm main effects of FTM techniques (mitigation strategies lead to positive effects), but the addition of emojis had no perceptible influence. Implications for technology-driven instructional feedback are discussed.
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Bowman, N. D., Banks, J. D., & Westerman, D. K. (2015, May). Through the Looking Glass: The impact of Google Glass on perceptions of face-to-face interaction. Paper presented at the International Communication Association, Puerto Rico.
Research Interests:
This article proposes a validated 15-item scale that merges theoretically divergent perspectives on player–avatar relations in extant literature (parasociality as psychological merging and sociality as psychological divergence) to measure... more
This article proposes a validated 15-item scale that merges theoretically divergent perspectives on player–avatar relations in extant literature (parasociality as psychological merging and sociality as psychological divergence) to measure player–avatar interaction (PAX). PAX is defined as the perceived social and functional association between an MMO player and game avatar, inclusive of four factors: emotional investment, anthropomorphic autonomy, suspension of disbelief, and sense of player control. These four factors were stable across two large multi-game (N = 494) and game-specific player samples (N = 458), in both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Construct validity tests show scale dimensions have expected significant relationships with a sense of human-like relatedness and player–avatar relationship features, and predictive validity tests indicate theoretically likely and relevant factor associations with gameplay motivations and MMO genres.
Research Interests:
A growing area of video game research considers factors external to games that might predict both observed in-game and physical world decisions. One factor may be an individual's habitual behaviors, such as their physical activity... more
A growing area of video game research considers factors external to games that might predict both observed in-game and physical world decisions. One factor may be an individual's habitual behaviors, such as their physical activity routines. Because the authors tend to automate behaviors that they repeat in stable circumstances or contexts, virtual re-creations of those stimuli should prompt the same behavior in the game environment. Moreover, as virtual worlds become more similar to the physical world, behaviors the authors learn in physical reality might influence virtual behaviors. The authors ask two research questions: (RQ1) Is there an association between real-world habits and in-game decisions? (RQ2) Does the nature of the in-game task influence any relationship between real-world habits and in-game decisions? A quasi-experiment of 110 students at a large, mid-Atlantic university demonstrated that physical activity routines bias in-game transportation decisions, particularly when prompted to pursue a specific goal over a free exploration task.
Research Interests:
As principal links between players and many gameworlds, avatars are of central importance to understanding human behavior and communication in play. In particular, the connection between player and avatar is understood as influencing a... more
As principal links between players and many gameworlds, avatars are of central importance to understanding human behavior and communication in play. In particular, the connection between player and avatar is understood as influencing a range of cognitive, affective, and behavioral play phenomena. Divergent approaches examine this connection from both parasocial (one-way, non-dialectical) and social (two-way, dialectical) perspectives. This study examined how player-avatar connections may be better understood by integrating an existing parasocial approach (character attachment; CA) with a social approach (player-avatar relationships; PAR). A quantitative linguistic analysis of player interviews revealed statistically robust associations among language patterns, dimensions of CA, and PAR types. Validating and extending prior research, findings highlight the importance of self-differentiation and anthropomorphization in suspending disbelief so that the avatar may be taken as a fully social agent. Note: Length exclusive of tables, figures, references, and appendix is 22 pages.
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This article expands on the use of self-determination theory (SDT) as an explanation for enjoyment in video games. Two different types of players with contrasting gameplay styles were examined and compared using the theory: griefers, who... more
This article expands on the use of self-determination theory (SDT) as an explanation for enjoyment in video games. Two different types of players with contrasting gameplay styles were examined and compared using the theory: griefers, who enjoy engaging in activities meant to disrupt other players' game experience, and more community-focused players. A two-condition experiment (randomly assigning respondents to complete different survey prompts) was used to examine griefers' satisfaction of SDT needs compared to their levels of enjoyment when griefing others and if their gameplay style hinders their enjoyment or not when compared to community players. Results support the relationship between SDT need satisfaction and enjoyment, and indicate that griefers enjoy their gameplay style as much as community-based players, despite the antisocial nature of the gameplay style resulting in differing levels of need satisfaction. The results show the relationship between the three SDT needs and enjoyment based on an emphasis on the importance players place on individual needs.
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Research Interests:
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Contemporary culture finds human communication activities spread across a range of digital and physical spaces, from homes and workplaces to social networks and online games. Although many scholars have embraced postmodern perspectives on... more
Contemporary culture finds human communication activities spread across a range of digital and physical spaces, from homes and workplaces to social networks and online games. Although many scholars have embraced postmodern perspectives on how this condition has given rise to the fluid, fragmented, distributed Self, most empirical examinations of the Self are still firmly rooted in the corporeal human. In this paper, I outline the historical trajectory of the notion of “Self” and argue for transition to an approach that more authentically accommodates the notions of multiplicity across digital and physical spaces. Drawing on situativity and actor-network principles, I propose a model in which the Self is a network of personas that are, themselves, complex networks of objects; these networks are subjectively experienced, giving rise to identities. In this way, the binaries of me/not-me, human/nonhuman, and digital/physical are unraveled in favor of how more precisely identified and interrelated agents (e.g., objects, ideas, messages, events, interfaces) give rise to the Self across communication contexts.
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Advances in realistic graphics and artificial intelligence are hallmarks of evolved video games, as environments and characters are made to seem more real. Little is known, however, about whether or not character model changes may impact... more
Advances in realistic graphics and artificial intelligence are hallmarks of evolved video games, as environments and characters are made to seem more real. Little is known, however, about whether or not character model changes may impact players’ relationships with familiar avatars, especially since anthropomorphism – the perception of nonhuman objects as being human or human-like – is understood as central to player-avatar interaction (PAX). This study leveraged a naturally occurring change to one MMO’s avatars to conduct a field quasi-experiment to investigate whether enhanced avatar anthropomorphism influences PAX dimensions: emotional investment, anthropomorphic autonomy, suspension of disbelief, and sense of control. Longitudinal analysis showed that enhanced anthropomorphism had no significant impact on any PAX dimension immediately or over time, when controlling for demographic and gameplay variables. Player comments suggest the change was experienced not as a change in humanness, but as a shift in perceptual realism – believability, lifelikeness, depth – that impacted the experience of the avatar-mediated gameworld more broadly.
Research Interests:
As immersive digital environments increasingly facilitate social, professional, and playful human interactions, avatars are central to facilitating communication among players; concurrently, evidence points to avatars' distinct agencies.... more
As immersive digital environments increasingly facilitate social, professional, and playful human interactions, avatars are central to facilitating communication among players; concurrently, evidence points to avatars' distinct agencies. Synthesizing these perspectives, this paper proposes and tests a relational matrix model of interactions in massively multiplayer online games, characterizing interactions traditionally considered dyadic (between two players) instead as tetradic (among two players and their respective avatars). Results from a survey of gamers (N = 220) support the proposed model, demonstrating perceptions of social agency (via explicit and implicit anthropomorphism and electronic propinquity) that are significantly different among the four agents in the matrix. Findings are discussed with respect to further development and implementation of the model and the nature of human-avatar interactions
Research Interests:
Massively multiplayer online games (MMOs) often introduce new content and mechanics to increase player retention and enjoyment. Little is understood, however, about how changes may affect player experience. Drawing on theories of... more
Massively multiplayer online games (MMOs) often introduce new content and mechanics to increase player retention and enjoyment. Little is understood, however, about how changes may affect player experience. Drawing on theories of socio-ecological risk response (specifically notions of expressed vulnerability and resilience), this exploratory study examines players’ in situ responses to large-scale MMO changes by analyzing patterns in public, in-game chat across three game expansions. Analysis reveals that a) change serves an agenda-setting function in player chat, b) vulnerability and resilience expressions focus on changes in avatars, mechanics, and game technologies, highlighting tensions in player and game agencies, and c) players sometimes increase the semantic distance between the game and the “real” as way to cope with game changes. Findings suggest that people may respond to drastic change in digital environments similarly to that in physical environments, and that sociotechnical affordances of MMO environments could be important mechanism for coping with change, more broadly.
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Research Interests:
Advancements in wearable technology have allowed for extradyadic social cues to be inserted directly (albeit conspicuously) into face-to-face interactions. The current study simulated a fictitious “Looking Glass” program that (a)... more
Advancements in wearable technology have allowed for extradyadic social cues to be inserted directly (albeit conspicuously) into face-to-face interactions. The current study simulated a fictitious “Looking Glass” program that (a) autodetects (via facial recognition) one’s partner and (b) displays that person’s last 12 social media posts on a pair of Google Glass. In a randomized case/control experiment, nonwearers were more likely to perceive Glass wearers as physically attractive and socioemotionally close, while feeling lower self-esteem and having higher mental and physical demand with the conversation. Open-ended data suggested Glass wearers to be less attentive to the conversation, and Glass-present conversations were less on topic. These data, while preliminary and based on a small sample of users, hold implications for future application and research on cyborgic face-to-face interactions.
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Research Interests:
In various interactive digital media, users create representations for themselves – be they images, texts, or interactive characters – that are used mark the user’s identity, function, role, or position in the social landscape. These... more
In various interactive digital media, users create representations for themselves – be they images, texts, or interactive characters – that are used mark the user’s identity, function, role, or position in the social landscape. These representations, or avatars, can exist separate from the user who created them. As such, they can be crafted, performed, experimented with, and reflected upon. In this separation, users may experience their own avatars, engaging them more or less as ‘me’ or ‘not-me’ as a function of user and avatar agencies. To better understand these dynamics, in this chapter we draw from current perspectives on a particular type of user-avatar pair – video game players and their graphic in-game characters – to theoretically and empirically contextualize the range of relationships users may have with their digital representations in a variety of social networking platforms, and how those relationships may differently influence social interactions online. Tracing the trajectory of the earliest audience-character scholarship from 1920s scholarship (the parasocial perspective) to emerging findings that gamers sometimes engage their avatars as autonomous social agents, we argue for a relational continuum that demonstrates the full range of non-social, parasocial and fully social relationships that communication technology users can have with their digital avatars.
Research Interests:
Massively multiplayer online roleplaying games, or MMOs, present an increasingly popular digital media experience whereby identity emerges as players contribute materially to play but contributions are governed by affordances and... more
Massively multiplayer online roleplaying games, or MMOs, present an increasingly popular digital media experience whereby identity emerges as players contribute materially to play but contributions are governed by affordances and constraints of the game. Unique to such digital worlds is the player’s ability to create and control a digital body – an avatar – to represent the Self in the immersive gameworld. Although notions of identity and the Self in digital games have been examined through a number of approaches, it is still unclear how the way one sees the avatar in the uncanny situation of having two bodies – one digital, one physical – contributes to a sense of Self in and around these games. Further, it is unclear how non-human objects contribute to human senses of Self.
In that vein, this study examines two research questions: How do players have relationships with their avatars in a digital game? And how does the Self emerge in relation to those relationships? Toward understanding how nonhumans play a role in the emergence of the Self, this study approaches these questions from an actor-network perspective, examining how human, nonhuman, material, and semiotic objects exist in complex webs of relations and how those relations give rise to particular senses of Self in relation to particular gameplay situations.
Tracing the history of the construct of “Self” from romantic and singular to postmodern and pluralistic, I argue for an approach to Self that accommodates postmodern perspectives that embodiment is only one way that the Self is signified across spaces. Actor-Network Theory principles are integrated with postmodern notions of identity to propose a Network Model of Self. In this model, the Self is a network of personas that are, themselves, complex networks of objects. Following, I present a research approach called “object-relation mapping” that integrates phenomenology, Actor-Network Theory, social network analysis, and Grounded Theory to accommodate network structures and multiplicities of the Self as it is signified across spaces.
To address the questions of how the Self emerges in relation to different player-avatar relationships, I conducted in-depth interviews with 29 players of the online digital game World of Warcraft. Transcripts of those interviews were analyzed via thematic analysis for patterns in player-avatar relationships and via object-relation mapping for semantic and structural patterns in how object-relations give rise to persona- and Self-networks.
Through this analysis, a four-point typology of player-avatar relationships emerged, characterized by variations in emotional intimacy, self-differentiation, perceived agency, and primary gameplay focus. It is interpreted that the different relationships are the result of sense-making processes in response to the uncanny situation of having two bodies – one digital and one physical. Analysis revealed that players of different relationship types “activated” different types of personas, resulting in a Self that was more or less complex and consistent across game and non-game spaces. Further, players of each relationship type differently approached particular objects in crafting those personas. Ultimately a model of active Self-organization is presented, where players work with the affordances and against the constraints of objects in sense-making practices in order to maintain and protect preferred senses of agency and to achieve personal gameplay goals.
These findings suggest that players see avatars as objects that are, to different degrees, both human and technological, and as resources in the purposeful organization of a Self that serves individual psychological, social, and functional purposes. Different phenomenal accounts of the player-avatar relationship emerge as players work to make sense of human-technology interactions and to maintain agency and Selfhood in the face of technological constraints. Implications for human-technology relationships, more broadly, are discussed.
In that vein, this study examines two research questions: How do players have relationships with their avatars in a digital game? And how does the Self emerge in relation to those relationships? Toward understanding how nonhumans play a role in the emergence of the Self, this study approaches these questions from an actor-network perspective, examining how human, nonhuman, material, and semiotic objects exist in complex webs of relations and how those relations give rise to particular senses of Self in relation to particular gameplay situations.
Tracing the history of the construct of “Self” from romantic and singular to postmodern and pluralistic, I argue for an approach to Self that accommodates postmodern perspectives that embodiment is only one way that the Self is signified across spaces. Actor-Network Theory principles are integrated with postmodern notions of identity to propose a Network Model of Self. In this model, the Self is a network of personas that are, themselves, complex networks of objects. Following, I present a research approach called “object-relation mapping” that integrates phenomenology, Actor-Network Theory, social network analysis, and Grounded Theory to accommodate network structures and multiplicities of the Self as it is signified across spaces.
To address the questions of how the Self emerges in relation to different player-avatar relationships, I conducted in-depth interviews with 29 players of the online digital game World of Warcraft. Transcripts of those interviews were analyzed via thematic analysis for patterns in player-avatar relationships and via object-relation mapping for semantic and structural patterns in how object-relations give rise to persona- and Self-networks.
Through this analysis, a four-point typology of player-avatar relationships emerged, characterized by variations in emotional intimacy, self-differentiation, perceived agency, and primary gameplay focus. It is interpreted that the different relationships are the result of sense-making processes in response to the uncanny situation of having two bodies – one digital and one physical. Analysis revealed that players of different relationship types “activated” different types of personas, resulting in a Self that was more or less complex and consistent across game and non-game spaces. Further, players of each relationship type differently approached particular objects in crafting those personas. Ultimately a model of active Self-organization is presented, where players work with the affordances and against the constraints of objects in sense-making practices in order to maintain and protect preferred senses of agency and to achieve personal gameplay goals.
These findings suggest that players see avatars as objects that are, to different degrees, both human and technological, and as resources in the purposeful organization of a Self that serves individual psychological, social, and functional purposes. Different phenomenal accounts of the player-avatar relationship emerge as players work to make sense of human-technology interactions and to maintain agency and Selfhood in the face of technological constraints. Implications for human-technology relationships, more broadly, are discussed.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
This presentation discusses the research design challenges of studying communication and behavior among US players of the multiplayer online game, World of Warcraft (WoW). Unlike ethnographic or observational research in MMOs, this... more
This presentation discusses the research design challenges of studying communication and behavior among US players of the multiplayer online game, World of Warcraft (WoW). Unlike ethnographic or observational research in MMOs, this project designed a specific research site within the existing WoW infrastructure by drawing on the modification tools provided by the game’s creator, Blizzard Inc., called “add ons.” These tools allow players to adjust the user interface (UI) by adding information, images, and sound to their screen. Hundreds of add ons have been created by players to enhance game play through providing more information, adjust display, and enhance functionality of the game itself.
To develop the research site, we created an add on that generates a custom quest line entirely through the UI, including pop-up quest windows, cutscenes, and ambient sound. The add on used for
the study does not change the game space generated by WoW in any way, but instead relies on presenting, interpreting, and re-interpreting existing elements and technological capacities in the game. For example, in WoW players can kill rats, but they receive no credit, experience, or gold/items for doing so. In the quest line we created, however, when players kill a rat at a certain point during the quests, they receive a notification that they have completed a required task. Such a system requires
leveraging existing creatures, characters, and functionality of WoW and adding information to the interface using the add on that indicates certain actions and interactions are desired (or not).
Because this project set out to understand communication and behavior in WoW more broadly, we drew on existing game play technologies such as quest windows as well as the game’s cultural
products such as its lore, humor, and style to develop the add on and the quest line. We drew on the notion of the researcher-as-player as fundamental in this crafting, as the researcher draws from experienced game culture, mechanics, play norms, and the historical narrative of the virtual world.
Simultaneously, the add on was developed specifically for collecting communication and behavior data for a research project; thus both its functionality and the quest lines had to coordinate with our research and data collection needs.
To illustrate these challenges and offer best practices, we will discuss how the add on was developed in order to deliver an original quest and collect specific data in a virtual environment over which we had no control. Topics include techniques for addressing data objectives (e.g., grid movement, chat, environment interaction, field observation) by leveraging common game activities (e.g., crafting, killing beasts, collecting information); game mechanics (e.g., NPC interaction, guild membership, objectclicking); interface functions (e.g., quest delivery, multimedia display, chat windows); and game
narratives and culture (e.g., lore, faction rivalry, humor, pop culture references). Finally, we will discuss the importance of novelty and a feel of “ironic epicness” necessary for participant engagement, and will outline how our approach was validated through participant feedback and data.
To develop the research site, we created an add on that generates a custom quest line entirely through the UI, including pop-up quest windows, cutscenes, and ambient sound. The add on used for
the study does not change the game space generated by WoW in any way, but instead relies on presenting, interpreting, and re-interpreting existing elements and technological capacities in the game. For example, in WoW players can kill rats, but they receive no credit, experience, or gold/items for doing so. In the quest line we created, however, when players kill a rat at a certain point during the quests, they receive a notification that they have completed a required task. Such a system requires
leveraging existing creatures, characters, and functionality of WoW and adding information to the interface using the add on that indicates certain actions and interactions are desired (or not).
Because this project set out to understand communication and behavior in WoW more broadly, we drew on existing game play technologies such as quest windows as well as the game’s cultural
products such as its lore, humor, and style to develop the add on and the quest line. We drew on the notion of the researcher-as-player as fundamental in this crafting, as the researcher draws from experienced game culture, mechanics, play norms, and the historical narrative of the virtual world.
Simultaneously, the add on was developed specifically for collecting communication and behavior data for a research project; thus both its functionality and the quest lines had to coordinate with our research and data collection needs.
To illustrate these challenges and offer best practices, we will discuss how the add on was developed in order to deliver an original quest and collect specific data in a virtual environment over which we had no control. Topics include techniques for addressing data objectives (e.g., grid movement, chat, environment interaction, field observation) by leveraging common game activities (e.g., crafting, killing beasts, collecting information); game mechanics (e.g., NPC interaction, guild membership, objectclicking); interface functions (e.g., quest delivery, multimedia display, chat windows); and game
narratives and culture (e.g., lore, faction rivalry, humor, pop culture references). Finally, we will discuss the importance of novelty and a feel of “ironic epicness” necessary for participant engagement, and will outline how our approach was validated through participant feedback and data.
Research Interests:
The question of who, how and when people conform to group norms has been an ongoing research enterprise in the social sciences from work on crowd behavior of the early 1900s (Le Bon, 1960) to authoritarian experiments in the 1960s... more
The question of who, how and when people conform to group norms has been an ongoing research enterprise in the social sciences from work on crowd behavior of the early 1900s (Le Bon, 1960) to authoritarian experiments in the 1960s (Milgram, 1974) to questions about deindividuation and online behavior in the 1990s (Postmes & Spears, 1998). Relatedly, one dimension of normative behavior focuses on the personalities of the individuals that comprise a given social grouping. Individuals who are by their nature conformists shape the practices and norms of groups (Feldman, 2003).
Although research has investigated the construction and maintenance of social norms in online environments, either in text- or avatar-based spaces (Stromer-Galley & Martey, 2009), what has not received much attention is whether we can identify the personality characteristics of people from their online behaviors. The question we pursue in this paper focuses on whether we can identify who are conformists, based solely on the communication, interaction, and behavior of people in 3-D environments.
As part of a larger research project, we created a quasi-experiment in Second Life (SL). We developed a steampunk-themed murder mystery on a private island, complete with clues, obstacles requiring coordinated activities, and a rich story to provide an immersive, 2 hour game experience. SL players were recruited through Facebook and other means to create 48 groups of between 3 and 5 players each (Sample N=208). Participants took a survey before and again after game play, providing demographics and personality characteristics, including social conformity, which was measured by asking two questions after the quest: “I am easily influenced by the groups to which I belong” and “I generally conform to the norms of the groups to which I belong”.
All player movement, touch events (avatar interactions with objects in SL), and public chat on the island was recorded via a logging device that attached to each player’s avatar. All player chat, avatar appearance, and movement sequences of players was systematically content analyzed (all variables met or exceeded Krippendorff’s alpha of .80). Elements of chat, such as laughter, profanity, appreciation, punctuation marks, emoticons, and usage of capital letters, was machine counted by building dictionaries (F-tests on the combined average of precision and recall on all counts >.8).
Analysis of the survey data suggested that the two items asked at the end of the survey had a strong alpha (.9) and a normal distribution. They were combined into a single measure, and the cut point established by identifying the highest value for the low conformity cluster. Then the Social Conformity measure was recoded into a binary (0,1) measure to identify all those below the cut point as non-conformists and those above as conformists.
Multiple linear regression was used to analyze the data. Results indicate that those who were conformists used significantly more emoticons and SL emotes, provided fewer topic introductions and expressed less appreciation to group members. Conformists were more likely to copy and paste text from notecards they received or clues that they found. Conformists also were less likely to click rabbits that were scattered through the island.
Our findings will contribute to communication, personality, and internet scholarship. The results suggest that conformists in this SL quest are supportive and expressive, they work to nurture other members of the group through the communicative practices that expose their own emotions more readily than non-conformists, yet conformists were less likely to express appreciation, which are words or phrases that express one’s thankfulness. The reason for this is not entirely clear. One might think that emotional expressiveness and appreciation are similar communicative practices, but our results here suggest they are employed for different reasons and symbolize different social relations. That conformists were less likely to introduce new topics reaffirms that conformists are less likely to be leaders, as we might expect, in so far as introducing topics is one way that leaders control discussion. The rabbits on the island were elements we added to the game that do not directly contribute to the story but add ambiance. That conformists were less likely to engage the rabbits and also more likely to copy and paste text suggests that they tend to stay focused on the main objectives of the task and to keep faithful to the information they received, rather than venture off or paraphrase for themselves the clues or notes they had received.
Although research has investigated the construction and maintenance of social norms in online environments, either in text- or avatar-based spaces (Stromer-Galley & Martey, 2009), what has not received much attention is whether we can identify the personality characteristics of people from their online behaviors. The question we pursue in this paper focuses on whether we can identify who are conformists, based solely on the communication, interaction, and behavior of people in 3-D environments.
As part of a larger research project, we created a quasi-experiment in Second Life (SL). We developed a steampunk-themed murder mystery on a private island, complete with clues, obstacles requiring coordinated activities, and a rich story to provide an immersive, 2 hour game experience. SL players were recruited through Facebook and other means to create 48 groups of between 3 and 5 players each (Sample N=208). Participants took a survey before and again after game play, providing demographics and personality characteristics, including social conformity, which was measured by asking two questions after the quest: “I am easily influenced by the groups to which I belong” and “I generally conform to the norms of the groups to which I belong”.
All player movement, touch events (avatar interactions with objects in SL), and public chat on the island was recorded via a logging device that attached to each player’s avatar. All player chat, avatar appearance, and movement sequences of players was systematically content analyzed (all variables met or exceeded Krippendorff’s alpha of .80). Elements of chat, such as laughter, profanity, appreciation, punctuation marks, emoticons, and usage of capital letters, was machine counted by building dictionaries (F-tests on the combined average of precision and recall on all counts >.8).
Analysis of the survey data suggested that the two items asked at the end of the survey had a strong alpha (.9) and a normal distribution. They were combined into a single measure, and the cut point established by identifying the highest value for the low conformity cluster. Then the Social Conformity measure was recoded into a binary (0,1) measure to identify all those below the cut point as non-conformists and those above as conformists.
Multiple linear regression was used to analyze the data. Results indicate that those who were conformists used significantly more emoticons and SL emotes, provided fewer topic introductions and expressed less appreciation to group members. Conformists were more likely to copy and paste text from notecards they received or clues that they found. Conformists also were less likely to click rabbits that were scattered through the island.
Our findings will contribute to communication, personality, and internet scholarship. The results suggest that conformists in this SL quest are supportive and expressive, they work to nurture other members of the group through the communicative practices that expose their own emotions more readily than non-conformists, yet conformists were less likely to express appreciation, which are words or phrases that express one’s thankfulness. The reason for this is not entirely clear. One might think that emotional expressiveness and appreciation are similar communicative practices, but our results here suggest they are employed for different reasons and symbolize different social relations. That conformists were less likely to introduce new topics reaffirms that conformists are less likely to be leaders, as we might expect, in so far as introducing topics is one way that leaders control discussion. The rabbits on the island were elements we added to the game that do not directly contribute to the story but add ambiance. That conformists were less likely to engage the rabbits and also more likely to copy and paste text suggests that they tend to stay focused on the main objectives of the task and to keep faithful to the information they received, rather than venture off or paraphrase for themselves the clues or notes they had received.
Research Interests:
Calling yourself “a gamer” is related to how you perceive what a gamer is. For some, calling themselves a gamer means aligning with stereotypes of unhealthy young men spending all day at the computer. For others, gamers are those who play... more
Calling yourself “a gamer” is related to how you perceive what a gamer is. For some, calling themselves a gamer means aligning with stereotypes of unhealthy young men spending all day at the computer. For others, gamers are those who play fighting games at an intense pace, or who attend gaming conventions. For still others, being a gamer is as simple as playing games frequently. Being a gamer can be a badge of honor to some or a stigma to others. Investigations of gamer identity tend to focus on these types of distinctions, but few analyses extend them to ask, what specific behaviors in a game differentiate those who do and do not consider themselves gamers?
This study examines the avatar use and communication of 211 people playing a custom-made game in the virtual world Second Life that was developed as part of a larger study. The game is a traditional point-and-click mystery quest complete with non-player characters, dangerous ghosts, and clues to help players complete challenges and solve the mystery. Playing the game was designed to take about two hours, although some groups took longer as they discussed clues and worked through puzzles. The game was set in a steampunk town, Adamourne on Wells, that incorporated robotic automatons, mystic fortune-tellers, and exploding clockwork machines typical of the genre.
Forty-eight groups of 3 to 5 players were recruited on Facebook and within Second Life. First they filled out an online survey assessing demographics, computer and game experience and preferences, and various other characteristics such as social conformity and leadership. We asked participants about the frequency they played games and the range of game genres they played, such as fighting, role-playing, first-person shooters, etc. We also asked participants whether or not they considered themselves “a gamer” and asked them in an open-ended question why or why not. 72% said they considered themselves gamers.
During their play session, participants were asked to attach a device to their avatar that logged public text chat, movement, and object clicks. These data were systematically content analyzed (all variables met or exceeded Krippendorff’s alpha of .80). Elements of chat, such as laughter, profanity, appreciation, punctuation marks, emoticons, and usage of capital letters, was machine counted by building dictionaries (F-tests on the combined average of precision and recall on all counts > .8). After the session, participants filled out a short survey assessing their experience playing the game.
Regression analyses of communication, click, movement, and appearance measures showed that gamers make 22% fewer requests for information from other players, they use about 35% fewer conventional phrases (e.g., “thank you” or “sorry”), and 44% more emoticons compared to non-gamers. In addition, gamers chat more, used other players’ names less, and use more role playing text (text that makes chat appear to be in the third, rather than first person).
When examining relationships between other individual characteristics and gamer identity, we found that younger, less educated, and male players were more likely to call themselves gamers, but those who spent more hours in Second Life were less likely to do so. As would be expected, those who played a wider variety of games and played more often were more likely to call themselves gamers. Of particular note was that being a gamer was not related to frequency of playing online games specifically, nor was it related to internet experience or frequency of use. Qualitative analyses of sessions and of the open-ended question about being a gamer provided context and some explanations for these findings.
Our findings correspond with research suggesting that gamers develop and participate in distinct cultures (Pearce, 2006; Steinkuehler, 2005; Taylor, 2006; Turkle, 1995;). These findings further emphasize that far from being wedded to the interface or setting, notions of gamer culture emerge among different players in different ways. Analysis of the open ended question asking why or why not participants considered themselves gamers provided some insight about these patterns. First, many players emphatically stated that, “Second Life is NOT a game!!;” instead they said it was a “real part of my life.” Many who spend a lot of time in Second Life did not consider themselves gamers, and expressed no conflict about that distinction. Gamer culture, then, was not associated with playing Second Life but instead was part of a distinct identity for some participants.
This paper contributes to understanding relationships among player behavior in a game and notions of gamer identity and culture, especially in the ways that players differ within the same game space. The rich qualitative analyses of previous scholars identify some key aspects of what it means to be a gamer; this study contributes quantitative evidence of specific patterns in how those factors can play out in player conversation and avatar use.
Note: Funded by the Air Force Research Laboratory.
This study examines the avatar use and communication of 211 people playing a custom-made game in the virtual world Second Life that was developed as part of a larger study. The game is a traditional point-and-click mystery quest complete with non-player characters, dangerous ghosts, and clues to help players complete challenges and solve the mystery. Playing the game was designed to take about two hours, although some groups took longer as they discussed clues and worked through puzzles. The game was set in a steampunk town, Adamourne on Wells, that incorporated robotic automatons, mystic fortune-tellers, and exploding clockwork machines typical of the genre.
Forty-eight groups of 3 to 5 players were recruited on Facebook and within Second Life. First they filled out an online survey assessing demographics, computer and game experience and preferences, and various other characteristics such as social conformity and leadership. We asked participants about the frequency they played games and the range of game genres they played, such as fighting, role-playing, first-person shooters, etc. We also asked participants whether or not they considered themselves “a gamer” and asked them in an open-ended question why or why not. 72% said they considered themselves gamers.
During their play session, participants were asked to attach a device to their avatar that logged public text chat, movement, and object clicks. These data were systematically content analyzed (all variables met or exceeded Krippendorff’s alpha of .80). Elements of chat, such as laughter, profanity, appreciation, punctuation marks, emoticons, and usage of capital letters, was machine counted by building dictionaries (F-tests on the combined average of precision and recall on all counts > .8). After the session, participants filled out a short survey assessing their experience playing the game.
Regression analyses of communication, click, movement, and appearance measures showed that gamers make 22% fewer requests for information from other players, they use about 35% fewer conventional phrases (e.g., “thank you” or “sorry”), and 44% more emoticons compared to non-gamers. In addition, gamers chat more, used other players’ names less, and use more role playing text (text that makes chat appear to be in the third, rather than first person).
When examining relationships between other individual characteristics and gamer identity, we found that younger, less educated, and male players were more likely to call themselves gamers, but those who spent more hours in Second Life were less likely to do so. As would be expected, those who played a wider variety of games and played more often were more likely to call themselves gamers. Of particular note was that being a gamer was not related to frequency of playing online games specifically, nor was it related to internet experience or frequency of use. Qualitative analyses of sessions and of the open-ended question about being a gamer provided context and some explanations for these findings.
Our findings correspond with research suggesting that gamers develop and participate in distinct cultures (Pearce, 2006; Steinkuehler, 2005; Taylor, 2006; Turkle, 1995;). These findings further emphasize that far from being wedded to the interface or setting, notions of gamer culture emerge among different players in different ways. Analysis of the open ended question asking why or why not participants considered themselves gamers provided some insight about these patterns. First, many players emphatically stated that, “Second Life is NOT a game!!;” instead they said it was a “real part of my life.” Many who spend a lot of time in Second Life did not consider themselves gamers, and expressed no conflict about that distinction. Gamer culture, then, was not associated with playing Second Life but instead was part of a distinct identity for some participants.
This paper contributes to understanding relationships among player behavior in a game and notions of gamer identity and culture, especially in the ways that players differ within the same game space. The rich qualitative analyses of previous scholars identify some key aspects of what it means to be a gamer; this study contributes quantitative evidence of specific patterns in how those factors can play out in player conversation and avatar use.
Note: Funded by the Air Force Research Laboratory.
Research Interests:
Qualitative approaches to analyzing texts can be extremely labor-intensive, involving iterative examinations of large bodies of text to tease out relevant patterns. This paper presents techniques for using tag cloud generators to... more
Qualitative approaches to analyzing texts can be extremely labor-intensive, involving iterative examinations of large bodies of text to tease out relevant patterns. This paper presents techniques for using tag cloud generators to visualize language patterns in complex or extensive textual data grounded in the voice of the speaker. Although tag clouds cannot serve as analytical tools, they can help researchers become more sensitive to the prevalence of specific terms and make us aware of potential directions for inquiry based on language use. Tag clouds can serve as a visual heuristic for identifying guideposts throughout the analysis process by comparing word relationships within and among segments of text. After discussing existing scholarship on tag clouds, the paper applies the technique to visualizing an in-depth, extended interview as an example. This visualization technique emphasizes the importance of specific themes and terms, as well as ways those themes differ across segments of the text.
Research Interests:
Virtual spheres – from social networks and chat lounges to 3D environments and online games – are fast becoming the water coolers and third places of postmodernity. Denizens publicly discuss and play out narratives around politics,... more
Virtual spheres – from social networks and chat lounges to 3D environments and online games – are fast becoming the water coolers and third places of postmodernity. Denizens publicly discuss and play out narratives around politics, family, health, and a range of other life issues, so it is no surprise romantic relationships emerge there as well. In Second Life (SL), a virtual environment that is fundamentally oriented around social exchange, romantic relationships are core components of experiences and use motivation.
This paper examines how Second Life (SL) residents portray in-world and out-world romantic relationships and how these performances vary in formality, frequency, intimacy, multimodality, intended audience, and social contextualization. The authors pair a content analysis of romantic relationship performances in Second Life profiles (N = 211) with data collected from user surveys to identify relationships among how romantic connections are performed in profiles and individual characteristics such as marital status, gender, age, sexuality, race, and others. It draws on data collected as part of a larger study of communication and avatar use in SL conducted in the summer of 2010. For that study, 211 participants came to a private island in SL to play a mystery quest game developed by the researchers. Their public chat and movement were logged automatically and the resulting data were analyzed along with answers to an online survey. As part of the process, screenshots of each participant during game play and their SL profile information were collected and content analyzed.
Although online relationships – especially avatar-mediated relationships – have been characterized as less valuable than offline relationships (Cummings, Butler, & Kraut, 2002), disintegrating the self (Smith, 2009), less developed (Parks & Roberts, 1998), and moderated by a tension between authenticity and presenting a desirable self (Ellison, Heino, & Gibbs, 2006), our analysis of SL profiles suggest this may not always be the case. Relationship representations are in line with Walther’s revised Hyperpersonal Model (2007) that contends users exploit the channels available in a specific medium to manage impressions of the self and the development of intimacy; where traditional face-to-face cues are absent, users employ the available means of representation and communication to perform identities and likewise to interpret the performances by cyber-others. In many cases, these profile performances exhibit deep emotional connections that betray popular conceptions of online relationships as shallow and trivial.
Framed by Goffman’s (1967) notion of “face-work” and Sunden’s (2003) reading of performance texts as virtual embodiments that are written and read, we argue that the public profile may be examined as a vignette constructed by the user as a form of impression management and as a passive but persistent performance that maintains face in the sometimes ephemeral virtual world. Moreover, we argue that profiles serve as markers and validation for the maintenance of romantic relationships.
In virtual social environments, profiles are often an important part of impressions of a cyber-other, providing a snapshot of the persona the user wishes to create. As virtual social environments grow in popularity, complexity, and pervasiveness, the importance of these representations is fueled by what may be called a “profile economy.” In many virtual environments, a profile search is the default form of finding information about others, yielding information-rich sketches carrying important social capital.
Extending this perspective to representations of romance, then, simple structure-content features such as the “relationship status” section of a profile may be viewed as the ritual equivalent of wearing a wedding ring to signify existing commitment; likewise, looking for that information in a profile may be taken as the parallel of looking for a ring adorning the finger of an attractive other.
Initial findings suggest continua in the degree of performance formality (from mentions of involvement to official partnership), frequency (from no mention to integration with nearly every segment of the profile), intimacy (from no private information to thick representations of the couple’s backstory and romantic lives), audience (from a generalized other to the specific romantic other), multimodality (from one mode of representation to integrations of textual, visual, and structural), and context (from positioning in a single subculture in Second Life to extension into offline spheres).
Additional analysis will explore how these performance variations differ according to user attributes (gender, race, age, education, sexuality, relationship status, social conformity, Internet experience) and avatar attributes (gender, race/species, age, emotiveness, tendency to use gestures and role-play).
Given the evolution of the online relationship and its increasing transference to offline interactions, it’s important to understand how users represent these affiliations and how those representations are interpreted. Such insight may enhance our understanding of the impact that performativity, embodiment, and the mediating interface have on the in-world experience as well as on the “meat self” that drives that experience in social interaction involving what is perhaps the most human of emotions: love.
This paper examines how Second Life (SL) residents portray in-world and out-world romantic relationships and how these performances vary in formality, frequency, intimacy, multimodality, intended audience, and social contextualization. The authors pair a content analysis of romantic relationship performances in Second Life profiles (N = 211) with data collected from user surveys to identify relationships among how romantic connections are performed in profiles and individual characteristics such as marital status, gender, age, sexuality, race, and others. It draws on data collected as part of a larger study of communication and avatar use in SL conducted in the summer of 2010. For that study, 211 participants came to a private island in SL to play a mystery quest game developed by the researchers. Their public chat and movement were logged automatically and the resulting data were analyzed along with answers to an online survey. As part of the process, screenshots of each participant during game play and their SL profile information were collected and content analyzed.
Although online relationships – especially avatar-mediated relationships – have been characterized as less valuable than offline relationships (Cummings, Butler, & Kraut, 2002), disintegrating the self (Smith, 2009), less developed (Parks & Roberts, 1998), and moderated by a tension between authenticity and presenting a desirable self (Ellison, Heino, & Gibbs, 2006), our analysis of SL profiles suggest this may not always be the case. Relationship representations are in line with Walther’s revised Hyperpersonal Model (2007) that contends users exploit the channels available in a specific medium to manage impressions of the self and the development of intimacy; where traditional face-to-face cues are absent, users employ the available means of representation and communication to perform identities and likewise to interpret the performances by cyber-others. In many cases, these profile performances exhibit deep emotional connections that betray popular conceptions of online relationships as shallow and trivial.
Framed by Goffman’s (1967) notion of “face-work” and Sunden’s (2003) reading of performance texts as virtual embodiments that are written and read, we argue that the public profile may be examined as a vignette constructed by the user as a form of impression management and as a passive but persistent performance that maintains face in the sometimes ephemeral virtual world. Moreover, we argue that profiles serve as markers and validation for the maintenance of romantic relationships.
In virtual social environments, profiles are often an important part of impressions of a cyber-other, providing a snapshot of the persona the user wishes to create. As virtual social environments grow in popularity, complexity, and pervasiveness, the importance of these representations is fueled by what may be called a “profile economy.” In many virtual environments, a profile search is the default form of finding information about others, yielding information-rich sketches carrying important social capital.
Extending this perspective to representations of romance, then, simple structure-content features such as the “relationship status” section of a profile may be viewed as the ritual equivalent of wearing a wedding ring to signify existing commitment; likewise, looking for that information in a profile may be taken as the parallel of looking for a ring adorning the finger of an attractive other.
Initial findings suggest continua in the degree of performance formality (from mentions of involvement to official partnership), frequency (from no mention to integration with nearly every segment of the profile), intimacy (from no private information to thick representations of the couple’s backstory and romantic lives), audience (from a generalized other to the specific romantic other), multimodality (from one mode of representation to integrations of textual, visual, and structural), and context (from positioning in a single subculture in Second Life to extension into offline spheres).
Additional analysis will explore how these performance variations differ according to user attributes (gender, race, age, education, sexuality, relationship status, social conformity, Internet experience) and avatar attributes (gender, race/species, age, emotiveness, tendency to use gestures and role-play).
Given the evolution of the online relationship and its increasing transference to offline interactions, it’s important to understand how users represent these affiliations and how those representations are interpreted. Such insight may enhance our understanding of the impact that performativity, embodiment, and the mediating interface have on the in-world experience as well as on the “meat self” that drives that experience in social interaction involving what is perhaps the most human of emotions: love.
Research Interests:
Pearce (2009), Turkle (1995) and others have noted that in order to fully understand communication and behavior in online social spaces and games in particular, it is necessary ‘live’ in the spaces of those worlds. Researchers performing... more
Pearce (2009), Turkle (1995) and others have noted that in order to fully understand communication and behavior in online social spaces and games in particular, it is necessary ‘live’ in the spaces of those worlds. Researchers performing work that places them in these settings must identify who they will be and how they will present themselves, whether in a forum, online game, chat room, or Facebook. This paper addresses researcher self-presentation using an example of a current project examining communication and avatar use in the virtual worlds Second Life and World of Warcraft. The project employs online surveys, participant-observation, and a quasi-experiment that asks groups of 3 to 5 participants to play custom-built games in Second Life and in World of Warcraft for two hours. As part of the study design, a researcher uses a specific Second Life avatar as “Training Sergeant Unit Nyn” to accompany participants as they play, serving as live help, cheat monitor, and participant-observer in each session. This paper discusses the development and design of the scripts, avatar appearance, and rules around that participation in order to shed some light on how researcher presence can alter the data collection process. The paper also incorporates considerations for designing online profiles and characters for both participation in different online social spaces and for recruiting, including creating Twitter and Facebook profiles as part of that process.
Although considerable research has examined the implications of how we design our online selves, researchers face different challenges in creating a persona associated with formal study. In part, these challenges are technical: in order to observe, you must enter the space by creating an avatar or screen profile and frequently associate that ‘embodied’ self with those you observe through placement, links, or “friendships.” In part, they are paradigmatic: participation and understanding are vital to collecting and interpreting meaningful data in social spaces. These questions can be addressed through methodological perspectives that examine the role of the researcher. For example, in ethnography, the parameters of participant observer roles can range from a “fly on the wall”, to deeply engaged, to the full involvement of autoethnography. In other types of research, the guidelines are less clear. Survey research on Facebook that entails creating a “researcher profile” to access participants has little to say about the implications of that profile’s design, for example. Similarly, what parameters must be considered to observe and catalog forum or bulletin board posts? Although some such research can be done invisibly, without creating an account or presence in the setting being observed, other projects require researchers’ digital presence.
Although the studies we are conducting are quasi-experiments with very specific parameters, we draw on ethnographic paradigms to establish the Training Sergeant’s identity and navigate a fine, constantly shifting line between participation and interference. For example, in pilot studies for the first stage of our research conducted in Second Life, post-session interviews and researcher field notes revealed that when the Training Sergeant was a human male, participants frequently saw him as a figure of authority, affecting how group dynamics emerged in the session. Therefore, we adjusted look of the Training Sergeant to be more neutral in appearance by using a robotic avatar similar to robot NPCs found throughout the Second Life quest we had created. We also changed the language used by the new “Unit Nyn” to express less personality, such as referring to itself in the third person and instead of laughing saying, “Humor registered.” As a result, later groups identified the Training Sergeant as “in the background” and “part of the island more than the group.”
These types of parameters provide a framework that still allows for freedom of performance according to the specifics of each group. As part of this process, we asked: How does the way the Training Sergeant is presented, including gender, race, clothing, and shape, affect participants and relationships with them? How do the Training Sergeant’s reactions to quest events influence participant behavior? How can the boundaries we set on participation both accommodate the improvisation inherent in participant observation techniques and maintain a consistent role for the researcher driving it? Finally, how can the lessons learned in our experiences with Second Life contribute to designing the researcher presence in the next stage of our project in World of Warcraft?
In many ways, the field will always be altered by the presence of the researcher. Even in projects that are in no way ethnographic, the careful thinking of ethnographic paradigms provide frameworks we can use to better understand the strengths and weaknesses of the tools we use and the data we have collected. The self-reflexivity of ethnography profoundly enriches our ability to examine more deeply our own roles, reactions, behaviors and their consequences in a broad range of data collection approaches.
Although considerable research has examined the implications of how we design our online selves, researchers face different challenges in creating a persona associated with formal study. In part, these challenges are technical: in order to observe, you must enter the space by creating an avatar or screen profile and frequently associate that ‘embodied’ self with those you observe through placement, links, or “friendships.” In part, they are paradigmatic: participation and understanding are vital to collecting and interpreting meaningful data in social spaces. These questions can be addressed through methodological perspectives that examine the role of the researcher. For example, in ethnography, the parameters of participant observer roles can range from a “fly on the wall”, to deeply engaged, to the full involvement of autoethnography. In other types of research, the guidelines are less clear. Survey research on Facebook that entails creating a “researcher profile” to access participants has little to say about the implications of that profile’s design, for example. Similarly, what parameters must be considered to observe and catalog forum or bulletin board posts? Although some such research can be done invisibly, without creating an account or presence in the setting being observed, other projects require researchers’ digital presence.
Although the studies we are conducting are quasi-experiments with very specific parameters, we draw on ethnographic paradigms to establish the Training Sergeant’s identity and navigate a fine, constantly shifting line between participation and interference. For example, in pilot studies for the first stage of our research conducted in Second Life, post-session interviews and researcher field notes revealed that when the Training Sergeant was a human male, participants frequently saw him as a figure of authority, affecting how group dynamics emerged in the session. Therefore, we adjusted look of the Training Sergeant to be more neutral in appearance by using a robotic avatar similar to robot NPCs found throughout the Second Life quest we had created. We also changed the language used by the new “Unit Nyn” to express less personality, such as referring to itself in the third person and instead of laughing saying, “Humor registered.” As a result, later groups identified the Training Sergeant as “in the background” and “part of the island more than the group.”
These types of parameters provide a framework that still allows for freedom of performance according to the specifics of each group. As part of this process, we asked: How does the way the Training Sergeant is presented, including gender, race, clothing, and shape, affect participants and relationships with them? How do the Training Sergeant’s reactions to quest events influence participant behavior? How can the boundaries we set on participation both accommodate the improvisation inherent in participant observation techniques and maintain a consistent role for the researcher driving it? Finally, how can the lessons learned in our experiences with Second Life contribute to designing the researcher presence in the next stage of our project in World of Warcraft?
In many ways, the field will always be altered by the presence of the researcher. Even in projects that are in no way ethnographic, the careful thinking of ethnographic paradigms provide frameworks we can use to better understand the strengths and weaknesses of the tools we use and the data we have collected. The self-reflexivity of ethnography profoundly enriches our ability to examine more deeply our own roles, reactions, behaviors and their consequences in a broad range of data collection approaches.
Research Interests:
Although considerable research has identified patterns in online communication and interaction related to a range of individual characteristics, analyses of age have been limited, especially those that compare age groups. Research that... more
Although considerable research has identified patterns in online communication and interaction related to a range of individual characteristics, analyses of age have been limited, especially those that compare age groups. Research that does examine online communication by age largely focus on linguistic elements. However, performative theories of communication emphasize the importance of non-linguistic factors such as appearance and non-verbal behaviors. These behaviors are especially relevant to online settings where physical markers of age are largely unseen. In order to examine ways that users perform age identity through both visual and textual representations of self, we use multiple linear regression to explore the behavior of 201 players of a custom game in the virtual world Second Life (SL). Analyses of chat, avatar use, and avatar appearance suggest that when examined in relation to appearance, age differences in linguistic behavior are less important than visual ones.
Research Interests:
The widespread adoption of social platforms has altered the face of celebrity-fan interactions, obscuring or even removing gatekeepers and enabling direct communication. This paper addresses the construction of a celebrity identity - the... more
The widespread adoption of social platforms has altered the face of celebrity-fan interactions, obscuring or even removing gatekeepers and enabling direct communication. This paper addresses the construction of a celebrity identity - the ‘Mother Monster’ identity of pop music artist Lady Gaga – performed over six months via Twitter feed. The evolving social text, interpreted from a symbolic interactionist frame, reveals an interdependence between the source’s performance and the audience’s anticipated response: Lady Gaga’s messages construct her Mother Monster identity in part by calling for specific responses from the active audience to construct themselves as ‘Little Monsters’ through virtual and physical actions and interactions. Implications for treatment of social texts and interactive authorship are discussed, including suggestions for social audience operationalizations that include role-phasing, or shifting and overlapping adoptions of various roles in meaning-making processes.
Research Interests:
A social media user mindfully created screen names, employing them as noms de guerre (“names of war”) in figurative social identity conflict among authentic and socially acceptable possible selves. Across lifelong social exclusion, she... more
A social media user mindfully created screen names, employing them as noms de guerre (“names of war”) in figurative social identity conflict among authentic and socially acceptable possible selves. Across lifelong social exclusion, she leveraged five screen names to position her self-concepts across identity battlefields (intelligence, sexuality, emotion, social worth, and morality) to resolve dissonance among her natural personality, behavior, and belief attributes and the rejection of those attributes by offline and virtual others.
Research Interests:
The creative act of crafting and employing a persona in virtual communication environments has evolved the practice of naming from a mere labeling exercise to an intimate performance of our self-concept. It is a rejection of externally... more
The creative act of crafting and employing a persona in virtual communication environments has evolved the practice of naming from a mere labeling exercise to an intimate performance of our self-concept. It is a rejection of externally assigned attributes and a powerful embracing of personal dimensions we claim for ourselves – it is with this recognition that the author recommends renewed attention to the dynamics of screen names and consideration of screen names as thoughtful performances of “possible selves.” Facing limited research on screen names, the author extrapolates and synthesizes relevant findings from other onomastic disciplines to suggest research questions in a number of domains, including formative cognitive processes, the name as strategic asset, the name as performance of identity, and the name as artifact of other virtual processes.
Research Interests:
The present study leverages a web-based card sorting task to simulate how social media users stereotype cyberothers based on screen names. Findings indicate the nature stereotyping behaviors depend on users’ experience and comfort with... more
The present study leverages a web-based card sorting task to simulate how social media users stereotype cyberothers based on screen names. Findings indicate the nature stereotyping behaviors depend on users’ experience and comfort with social media; a loose continuum suggests that greater social media sophistication associates with less stringent stereotyping and greater likelihood to engage in conversation with a cyberother while less sophisticated users are more stringent and less likely to engage.
Research Interests:
Immanuel Kant’s four moments of judgments of taste (disinterestedness, autonomous but universal application of the judgment, formal purposiveness without utility, and necessary satisfaction among others) applied to possible judgments of... more
Immanuel Kant’s four moments of judgments of taste (disinterestedness, autonomous but universal application of the judgment, formal purposiveness without utility, and necessary satisfaction among others) applied to possible judgments of beauty in the digital domain of Second Life bring attention to dimensions of virtual aesthetic experience distinct from physical-world aesthetic experience. In the application of these moments, we see that virtual conditions may be more conducive to Kant’s require state of disinterestedness through concurrent selves split between the physical and virtual worlds, as well as through virtual objects’ relative lack of physical world utility. Resting on the contention that our faculty for judgments of taste derives from participation in a shared symbolic environments, four points are argued: physical and virtual interestedness are independent, physical and virtual ends are independent, virtual aesthetic judgments are less subject to social norms, and the demand for aesthetic agreement and pleasure is assigned to virtual representations of others and not their physical selves.
Research Interests:
This study examined gender and product-category involvement as antecedents to variation among undergraduate communications students (N = 62) in dealing with visual-verbal incongruity in brand wordmarks. Manifestation of these strategies... more
This study examined gender and product-category involvement as antecedents to variation among undergraduate communications students (N = 62) in dealing with visual-verbal incongruity in brand wordmarks. Manifestation of these strategies was measured in terms of affect, purchase intent, cue response, and assessment of a target attribute in response to viewing a wordmark with opposing word meaning and typeface connotation. Gender and product-category involvement were shown to be significant influences on attitude and attribute evaluation. This work details the potential impacts of information incongruity and schema incongruity, involvement as motivation to process, cue-election theory related to gender differences, and potential for message evaluations to influence product evaluations. The work also includes implications for visual message design as well as directions for future research.
Research Interests:
As social robots' and AI agents' roles are becoming more diverse, those machines increasingly function as sociable partners. This trend raises questions about whether social gaming gratifications known to emerge in human-human co-play may... more
As social robots' and AI agents' roles are becoming more diverse, those machines increasingly function as sociable partners. This trend raises questions about whether social gaming gratifications known to emerge in human-human co-play may (not) also manifest in human-machine co-play. In the present study, we examined social outcomes of playing a videogame with a human partner as compared to an ostensible social robot or A.I (i.e., computer-controlled player) partner. Participants (N = 103) were randomly assigned to three experimental conditions in
which they played a cooperative video game with either a human, embodied robot, or non-embodied AI. Results indicated that few statistically significant or meaningful differences existed between any of the partner types on perceived closeness with partner, relatedness need satisfaction, or entertainment outcomes. However, qualitative data suggested that human and robot partners were both seen as more sociable, while AI partners were seen as more functional.
which they played a cooperative video game with either a human, embodied robot, or non-embodied AI. Results indicated that few statistically significant or meaningful differences existed between any of the partner types on perceived closeness with partner, relatedness need satisfaction, or entertainment outcomes. However, qualitative data suggested that human and robot partners were both seen as more sociable, while AI partners were seen as more functional.
Research Interests:
As social robot and roles are becoming more diverse, those machines increasingly function as sociable partners. This trend raises questions about whether social gaming gratifications known to emerge in human-human co-play may... more
As social robot and
roles are becoming
more diverse, those machines increasingly function as sociable
partners. This trend raises questions about whether social
gaming gratifications known to emerge in human-human co-play
may (not) also manifest in human-machine co-play. In the present
study, we examined social outcomes of playing a videogame with
a human partner as compared to an ostensible social robot or A.I
(i.e., computer-controlled player) partner. Participants (N = 103)
were randomly assigned to three experimental conditions in
which they played a cooperative video game with either a human,
embodied robot, or non-embodied AI. Results indicated that few
statistically significant or meaningful differences existed between
any of the partner types on perceived closeness with partner,
relatedness need satisfaction, or entertainment outcomes.
However, qualitative data suggested that human and robot
partners were both seen as more sociable, while AI partners were
seen as more functional.
roles are becoming
more diverse, those machines increasingly function as sociable
partners. This trend raises questions about whether social
gaming gratifications known to emerge in human-human co-play
may (not) also manifest in human-machine co-play. In the present
study, we examined social outcomes of playing a videogame with
a human partner as compared to an ostensible social robot or A.I
(i.e., computer-controlled player) partner. Participants (N = 103)
were randomly assigned to three experimental conditions in
which they played a cooperative video game with either a human,
embodied robot, or non-embodied AI. Results indicated that few
statistically significant or meaningful differences existed between
any of the partner types on perceived closeness with partner,
relatedness need satisfaction, or entertainment outcomes.
However, qualitative data suggested that human and robot
partners were both seen as more sociable, while AI partners were
seen as more functional.
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Popular opinion of digital games tends to classify them as toys, diversions and distractions, however this focus on games solely as sources of hedonic pleasure is theoretically, empirically, and phenomenologically myopic – it obscures the... more
Popular opinion of digital games tends to classify them as toys, diversions and distractions, however this focus on games solely as sources of hedonic pleasure is theoretically, empirically, and phenomenologically myopic – it obscures the full range of affective, emotional, and cognitive experiences that one can have when playing digital games. In this vein, this study explores the phenomenal experience of enjoyment and appreciation in massively multiplayer online games, addressed through players’ descriptions of favorite gameplay memories. Through emergent thematic analysis of these descriptions and statistical analysis of individual differences, we demonstrate that elements of online game content can be both enjoyed as ego-driven reward and achievement and appreciated relationally with respect to other players, characters, and the gameworld. However, memorable game experiences are not necessarily experienced as having entertainment value, such that games scholars should be more inclusive of what is considered as important to players – potentially the win, the worth, and the work of play.
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Emerging research has suggested the player-avatar relationships (PARs) can be best understood in terms of the sociality: from non-social to parasocial to fully social. Moreover, both social and ludic dimensions are known to impact how... more
Emerging research has suggested the player-avatar relationships (PARs) can be best understood in terms of the sociality: from non-social to parasocial to fully social. Moreover, both social and ludic dimensions are known to impact how players take up their avatars as social others (or not) in player-avatar interactions (PAX). While past work has focused exclusively on massively multiplayer online games (primarily, World of Warcraft), the current study explores the potential for PARs and PAX to vary as a function of videogame genre. Secondary analysis from two online data sets found no variance in the frequency of PAR types across five popular videogame genres, but found significant differences in the relative importance of emotional investment (most importantly for action RPGs), anthropomorphism (least important for MMORPGs), and sense of control (high overall, but significantly less important for action-adventure and first-person shooters). These data suggests that while genre characteristics can impact the relative importance of discrete relationship dimensions, PARs are not inherent to or typical of any given videogame genre.
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Avatars, Assembled is a curated volume that unpacks videogame and virtual world avatars – not as a monolithic phenomenon (as they are usually framed) but as sociotechnical assemblages, pieced together from social (human-like) features... more
Avatars, Assembled is a curated volume that unpacks videogame and virtual world avatars – not as a monolithic phenomenon (as they are usually framed) but as sociotechnical assemblages, pieced together from social (human-like) features like gender and clothing to logical (technology-like) features like code and statistics. Each chapter accounts for the empirical, theoretical, technical, and popular understandings of these avatar "components"--60 in total--altogether offering a nuanced explication of avatars-as-assemblages as they matter in contemporary society and in individual experience. The volume is a "crossover" piece in that, while it delves into complex ideas, it is written in a way that will be accessible and interesting to students, researchers, designers, and practitioners alike. Although, in this way, the book offers value to a broad audience, it would be useful to academic courses on online identities, digital embodiment, digital culture, or even as a supplement to technical game design courses focusing on character development.
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Technological and social evolutions have prompted operational, phenomenological, and ontological shifts in communication processes. These shifts, we argue, trigger the need to regard human and machine roles in communication processes in a... more
Technological and social evolutions have prompted operational, phenomenological, and ontological shifts in communication processes. These shifts, we argue, trigger the need to regard human and machine roles in communication processes in a more egalitarian fashion. Integrating anthropocentric and technocentric perspectives on communication, we propose an agent-agnostic framework for human-machine communication. This framework rejects exclusive assignment of communicative roles (sender, message, channel, receiver) to traditionally held agents and instead focuses on evaluating agents according to their functions as a means for considering what roles are held in communication processes. As a first step in advancing this agent-agnostic perspective, this theoretical paper offers three potential criteria that both humans and machines could satisfy: agency, interactivity, and influence. Future research should extend our agent-agnostic framework to ensure that communication theory will be pr...
Research Interests: Robotics, Computer Science, Philosophy of Mind, Philosophy of Agency, Communication, and 11 moreAnthropocentrism, Meaning Making, Interactivity, Technocentrism, Communicative functions, Human-Machine Communication, Science and Technology Studies, Models of Communication, Other Engineering, machine agency, and communication source
Project files and other study materials (survey drafts and data outputs) as part of a two-month survey (November 2018 to January 2019) of Fallout 76 players. The study's broad focus considered players' entertainment experiences,... more
Project files and other study materials (survey drafts and data outputs) as part of a two-month survey (November 2018 to January 2019) of Fallout 76 players. The study's broad focus considered players' entertainment experiences, social relationships, digital tourism and sense of place, and other reactions to the game. Folders are divided up into different work packages, with descriptive labels to represent the outlet for those presentations (for example, conference submissions). The paper under review with Technology, Mind, & Behavior is in its own folder, for the current manuscript under review, "Country Roads through 1s and Os: Sense of place for and recognition of West Virginia following long-term engagement with Fallout 76." FOR REVIEWERS: Please use the folder that corresponds to the conference that you are reviewing for. However, in the interest of full transparency, all manuscripts and presentations currently under review are made accessible.
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In playing videogames, players often create avatars as extensions of agency into those spaces, where the player-avatar relationship (PAR) both shapes gameplay and is the product of gameplay experiences. Avatars are generally understood as... more
In playing videogames, players often create avatars as extensions of agency into those spaces, where the player-avatar relationship (PAR) both shapes gameplay and is the product of gameplay experiences. Avatars are generally understood as singular bodies; however, we argue they are functional and phenomenological assemblages—networks of social and technological components that are internalized by players as networks of knowledge about the avatar. Different PARs are based on different internalizations (i.e., mental models) for what an avatar is and why it matters. Toward illuminating nuances in PARs, we examine the content and structure of players’ internalizations of avatars as evidenced by descriptions of those digital bodies. Secondary analysis of N = 1,201 avatar descriptions parceled them by PAR type (avatars as asocial Objects, psychologically merged extensions of Me, hybrid me/other Symbiotes, and authentically social Other). Aggregated descriptions for each PAR type were subj...
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The connection between player and avatar is central to digital gaming, with identification assumed to be core to this connection. Often, scholarship engages single dimensions of identification, yet emerging perspectives reveal that... more
The connection between player and avatar is central to digital gaming, with identification assumed to be core to this connection. Often, scholarship engages single dimensions of identification, yet emerging perspectives reveal that identification is polythetic (PID) – comprising at least six sufficient (but not necessary) mechanisms. The current study investigates the intersections of polythetic identification mechanisms and two different approaches to player–avatar sociality (as a marker of differentiation): general types of player–avatar relationships (PARs) and discrete dimensions of player–avatar interaction (PAX). Secondary analysis of an existing dataset of gamers revealed two main findings: (1) players reported overall diminished identification when they engaged in non-social relations with their avatar, and (2) increased liking and perspective-taking were most likely with human-like social relations, which require differentiation from rather than identification as the avatar...
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People often engage human-interaction schemas in human-robot interactions, so notions of prototypicality are useful in examining how interactions’ formal features shape perceptions of social robots. We argue for a typology of three... more
People often engage human-interaction schemas in human-robot interactions, so notions of prototypicality are useful in examining how interactions’ formal features shape perceptions of social robots. We argue for a typology of three higher-order interaction forms (social, task, play) comprising identifiable-but-variable patterns in agents, content, structures, outcomes, context, norms. From that ground, we examined whether participants’ judgments about a social robot (mind, morality, and trust perceptions) differed across prototypical interactions. Findings indicate interaction forms somewhat influence trust but not mind or morality evaluations. However, how participants perceived interactions (independent of form) were more impactful. In particular, perceived task interactions fostered functional trust, while perceived play interactions fostered moral trust and attitude shift over time. Hence, prototypicality in interactions should not consider formal properties alone but must also ...
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Both robots and humans can behave in ways that engender positive and negative evaluations of their behaviors and associated responsibility. However, extant scholarship on the link between agent evaluations and valenced behavior has... more
Both robots and humans can behave in ways that engender positive and negative evaluations of their behaviors and associated responsibility. However, extant scholarship on the link between agent evaluations and valenced behavior has generally treated moral behavior as a monolithic phenomenon and largely focused on moral deviations. In contrast, contemporary moral psychology increasingly considers moral judgments to unfold in relation to a number of moral foundations (care, fairness, authority, loyalty, purity, liberty) subject to both upholding and deviation. The present investigation seeks to discover whether social judgments of humans and robots emerge differently as a function of moral foundation-specific behaviors. This work is conducted in two studies: (1) an online survey in which agents deliver observed/mediated responses to moral dilemmas and (2) a smaller laboratory-based replication with agents delivering interactive/live responses. In each study, participants evaluate the ...
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Videogames directly involve players as co-creators of on-screen events, and this interactivity is assumed to be a core source of their attraction as a successful entertainment medium. Although interactivity is an inherent property of the... more
Videogames directly involve players as co-creators of on-screen events, and this interactivity is assumed to be a core source of their attraction as a successful entertainment medium. Although interactivity is an inherent property of the videogame, it is variably perceived by the end user—for some users, perceived as a more demanding process, taxing their already-limited attentional resources. At least four such demands have been explicated in extant literature: cognitive (making sense of game logics/tasks), emotional (affective responses to game events/outcomes), physical (managing controller inputs and interfaces), and social (responding to human/nonhuman in-game others). Past work has reported empirical support of these concepts through validation of closed-ended survey metrics (e.g., Video Game Demand Scale). The current study challenges and extends the demand concept through an analysis of players’ own language when describing videogame demands in short essays about gaming expe...
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Researchers’ appearance and behavior may influence study participants’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors during in-person data collection. However, investigators in online settings can manage this influence by leveraging platform... more
Researchers’ appearance and behavior may influence study participants’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors during in-person data collection. However, investigators in online settings can manage this influence by leveraging platform affordances to craft purposeful, scripted presences. We argue for a revisioning of approaches to researcher presence in immersive digital environments. In particular, we draw on the metaphor of a video game non-player character (NPC) to position researchers as characters embedded in study narratives. The researcher-as-NPC is designed by purposefully selecting visual, verbal, and behavioral features in relation to the norms and requirements of both the research and the immersive digital environment. This balance allows an avatar to function as a more transparent research tool and as a character within both the research and world narratives, rather than as a mere extension of researcher agency. We offer two case studies – one in an open digital world of Secon...
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In the last 10 years, many canonical findings in the social sciences appear unreliable. This so-called “replication crisis” has spurred calls for open science practices, which aim to increase the reproducibility, replicability, and... more
In the last 10 years, many canonical findings in the social sciences appear unreliable. This so-called “replication crisis” has spurred calls for open science practices, which aim to increase the reproducibility, replicability, and generalizability of findings. Communication research is subject to many of the same challenges that have caused low replicability in other fields. As a result, we propose an agenda for adopting open science practices in Communication, which includes the following seven suggestions: (1) publish materials, data, and code; (2) preregister studies and submit registered reports; (3) conduct replications; (4) collaborate; (5) foster open science skills; (6) implement Transparency and Openness Promotion Guidelines; and (7) incentivize open science practices. Although in our agenda we focus mostly on quantitative research, we also reflect on open science practices relevant to qualitative research. We conclude by discussing potential objections and concerns associ...
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This study investigated how player-avatar interaction (PAX) and player-avatar relationship (PAR) are associated with spatial presence, social presence, and self-presence in video games, and additionally how the associations differ between... more
This study investigated how player-avatar interaction (PAX) and player-avatar relationship (PAR) are associated with spatial presence, social presence, and self-presence in video games, and additionally how the associations differ between Chinese and American players. American and Chinese players were recruited to answer a survey king about these variables. The survey was translated from English to Chinese for the different samples. Regression models and ANOVA analysis were used to analyze data, and the results revealed several significant associations between dimensions of PAX and the three types of presence. Additionally, results indicated that player-avatar relationships characterized by identity play and extension are generally associated with higher level of presence than the other two relationship types. Cultural differences were also found, with American and Chinese players differing in how PAR associated with social presence. Thus, the present study adds more understanding t...
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"The question of who, how and when people conform to group norms has been an ongoing research enterprise in the social sciences from work on crowd behavior of the early 1900s (Le Bon, 1960) to authoritarian experiments in the 1960s... more
"The question of who, how and when people conform to group norms has been an ongoing research enterprise in the social sciences from work on crowd behavior of the early 1900s (Le Bon, 1960) to authoritarian experiments in the 1960s (Milgram, 1974) to questions about deindividuation and online behavior in the 1990s (Postmes & Spears, 1998). Relatedly, one dimension of normative behavior focuses on the personalities of the individuals that comprise a given social grouping. Individuals who are by their nature conformists shape the practices and norms of groups (Feldman, 2003). Although research has investigated the construction and maintenance of social norms in online environments, either in text- or avatar-based spaces (Stromer-Galley & Martey, 2009), what has not received much attention is whether we can identify the personality characteristics of people from their online behaviors. The question we pursue in this paper focuses on whether we can identify who are conformists, based solely on the communication, interaction, and behavior of people in 3-D environments. As part of a larger research project, we created a quasi-experiment in Second Life (SL). We developed a steampunk-themed murder mystery on a private island, complete with clues, obstacles requiring coordinated activities, and a rich story to provide an immersive, 2 hour game experience. SL players were recruited through Facebook and other means to create 48 groups of between 3 and 5 players each (Sample N=208). Participants took a survey before and again after game play, providing demographics and personality characteristics, including social conformity, which was measured by asking two questions after the quest: “I am easily influenced by the groups to which I belong” and “I generally conform to the norms of the groups to which I belong”. All player movement, touch events (avatar interactions with objects in SL), and public chat on the island was recorded via a logging device that attached to each player’s avatar. All player chat, avatar appearance, and movement sequences of players was systematically content analyzed (all variables met or exceeded Krippendorff’s alpha of .80). Elements of chat, such as laughter, profanity, appreciation, punctuation marks, emoticons, and usage of capital letters, was machine counted by building dictionaries (F-tests on the combined average of precision and recall on all counts >.8). Analysis of the survey data suggested that the two items asked at the end of the survey had a strong alpha (.9) and a normal distribution. They were combined into a single measure, and the cut point established by identifying the highest value for the low conformity cluster. Then the Social Conformity measure was recoded into a binary (0,1) measure to identify all those below the cut point as non-conformists and those above as conformists. Multiple linear regression was used to analyze the data. Results indicate that those who were conformists used significantly more emoticons and SL emotes, provided fewer topic introductions and expressed less appreciation to group members. Conformists were more likely to copy and paste text from notecards they received or clues that they found. Conformists also were less likely to click rabbits that were scattered through the island. Our findings will contribute to communication, personality, and internet scholarship. The results suggest that conformists in this SL quest are supportive and expressive, they work to nurture other members of the group through the communicative practices that expose their own emotions more readily than non-conformists, yet conformists were less likely to express appreciation, which are words or phrases that express one’s thankfulness. The reason for this is not entirely clear. One might think that emotional expressiveness and appreciation are similar communicative practices, but our results here suggest they are employed for different reasons and symbolize different social relations. That conformists were less likely to introduce new topics reaffirms that conformists are less likely to be leaders, as we might expect, in so far as introducing topics is one way that leaders control discussion. The rabbits on the island were elements we added to the game that do not directly contribute to the story but add ambiance. That conformists were less likely to engage the rabbits and also more likely to copy and paste text suggests that they tend to stay focused on the main objectives of the task and to keep faithful to the information they received, rather than venture off or paraphrase for themselves the clues or notes they had received."
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Despite how humans and non-human objects relate in very social ways, the relations between players and their online game avatars are most often examined through conspicuously parasocial lenses. That is, the player-avatar relationship... more
Despite how humans and non-human objects relate in very social ways, the relations between players and their online game avatars are most often examined through conspicuously parasocial lenses. That is, the player-avatar relationship (PAR) is generally seen as one-way and non-dialectical as players think, feel, and acts toward the avatar without consideration for the avatar’s role in that relationship. The present study examines the potential for PARs to be fully social, in which player and avatar both materially contribute to the relationship. Through interpretive thematic analysis of in-depth interviews with diverse World of Warcraft players, analysis revealed that PARs sometimes feature the fully social characteristics of self-differentiation, emotional intimacy, and shared agency. It is argued that these differences in sociality may be best understood according to a four-point PAR typology, ranging from non-social to fully social.
Research Interests: Information Systems, Psychology, Emotion, Computer Science, Parasocial Interaction, and 15 moreVirtual Worlds, Agents, Interpersonal Relationships, MMORPG, Motivation, Gameplay Experience, Library and Information Studies, Agency, Identification, Online Games, Avatar, Avatars, Mmo, Communication and media Studies, and Motivation Psychology
A growing area of video game research considers factors external to games that might predict both observed in-game and physical world decisions. One factor may be an individual's habitual behaviors, such as their physical activity... more
A growing area of video game research considers factors external to games that might predict both observed in-game and physical world decisions. One factor may be an individual's habitual behaviors, such as their physical activity routines. Because the authors tend to automate behaviors that they repeat in stable circumstances or contexts, virtual re-creations of those stimuli should prompt the same behavior in the game environment. Moreover, as virtual worlds become more similar to the physical world, behaviors the authors learn in physical reality might influence virtual behaviors. The authors ask two research questions: (RQ1) Is there an association between real-world habits and in-game decisions? (RQ2) Does the nature of the in-game task influence any relationship between real-world habits and in-game decisions? A quasi-experiment of 110 students at a large, mid-Atlantic university demonstrated that physical activity routines bias in-game transportation decisions, particular...
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As principal links between players and many gameworlds, avatars are of central importance in understanding human behavior and communication in play. In particular, the connection between player and avatar is understood as influencing a... more
As principal links between players and many gameworlds, avatars are of central importance in understanding human behavior and communication in play. In particular, the connection between player and avatar is understood as influencing a range of cognitive, affective, and behavioral play phenomena. Divergent approaches examine this connection from both parasocial (one-way, non-dialectical) and social (two-way, dialectical) perspectives. This study examined how player–avatar connections may be better understood by integrating an existing parasocial approach (character attachment [CA]) with a social approach (player–avatar relationships [PARs]). A quantitative linguistic analysis of massively multiplayer online game (MMO) player interviews revealed statistically robust associations among language patterns, dimensions of CA, and PAR types. Validating and extending prior research, findings highlight the importance of self-differentiation and anthropomorphization in suspending disbelief so...
Research Interests: Psychology, Computer Science, Social Interaction, Video Games, Parasocial Interaction, and 11 moreDigital Games, Virtual Worlds, Identity and Identification, Interpersonal Relationships, MMORPG, New Media and Society, Agency, Avatar, Avatars, Communication and media Studies, and Player-Avatar Interaction
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The study of the player-avatar relationship has been central to scholars of video games and virtual worlds. Work has attempted to explain the relationship by focusing on the technologies of social presence, the socio-emotional... more
The study of the player-avatar relationship has been central to scholars of video games and virtual worlds. Work has attempted to explain the relationship by focusing on the technologies of social presence, the socio-emotional relationship between players and avatars as distinct social others, the capability of players to adopt the personae of their avatars, and the psychological merging of player and avatar as a unified person. While these approaches are useful in explaining specific forms and types of player-avatar relationships, they tend to adopt qualitatively-different approaches to the phenomenon that limit their ability to inform one another and, in turn, our understanding of the holistic player-avatar experience. To this end, the following paper demonstrates how player-avatar archetypes generated from narrative analysis can be reanalyzed for dimensions of character attachment to highlight intersections with agency and intimacy, and suggests the utility of such an approach to understanding the larger video game entertainment experience.
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Research Interests: Psychology, Embodiment, Gender, Virtual Worlds, MMORPG, and 4 moreOnline Gaming, Chat, Avatars, and Gender-Switching
ABSTRACT As players craft and enact identities in digital games, the relationship between player and avatar gender remains unclear. This study examines how 11 in-game chat, movement, and appearance behaviors differed by gender and by men... more
ABSTRACT As players craft and enact identities in digital games, the relationship between player and avatar gender remains unclear. This study examines how 11 in-game chat, movement, and appearance behaviors differed by gender and by men who did and did not use a female avatar – or ‘gender-switchers’. Drawing on social role and feminist theories of gender, we argue that gender differences in behavior align with the social roles and norms that establish appropriate and inappropriate behavior for men and women. Thus we complicate questions of ‘gender-switching’ by examining not only player gender, but also player psychological Gender Role as measured by the Bem Sex Role Inventory to examine how gender does – and does not – manifest in digital worlds. Analysis revealed that men may not necessarily seek to mask their offline gender when they use a female avatar, but there is evidence they do reinforce idealized notions of feminine appearance and communication. Movement behaviors, however, show no differences across men who do and do not gender-switch. That is, selecting avatar gender may be less a matter of identity expression, and more a strategic selection of available multi-modal codes that players take up in their navigation of this digital space.
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Although considerable research has identified patterns in online communication and interaction related to a range of individual characteristics, analyses of age have been limited, especially those that compare age groups. Research that... more
Although considerable research has identified patterns in online communication and interaction related to a range of individual characteristics, analyses of age have been limited, especially those that compare age groups. Research that does examine online communication by age largely focuses on linguistic elements. However, social identity approaches to group communication emphasize the importance of non-linguistic factors such as appearance and non-verbal behaviors. These factors are especially important to explore in online settings where traditional physical markers of age are largely unseen. To examine ways that users communicate age identity through both visual and textual means, we use multiple linear regression and qualitative methods to explore the behavior of 201 players of a custom game in the virtual world Second Life. Analyses of chat, avatar movement, and appearance suggest that although residents primarily used youthful-looking avatars, age differences emerged more str...
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Moral status can be understood along two dimensions: moral agency [capacities to be and do good (or bad)] and moral patiency (extents to which entities are objects of moral concern), where the latter especially has implications for how... more
Moral status can be understood along two dimensions: moral agency [capacities to be and do good (or bad)] and moral patiency (extents to which entities are objects of moral concern), where the latter especially has implications for how humans accept or reject machine agents into human social spheres. As there is currently limited understanding of how people innately understand and imagine the moral patiency of social robots, this study inductively explores key themes in how robots may be subject to humans’ (im)moral action across 12 valenced foundations in the moral matrix: care/harm, fairness/unfairness, loyalty/betrayal, authority/subversion, purity/degradation, liberty/oppression. Findings indicate that people can imagine clear dynamics by which anthropomorphic, zoomorphic, and mechanomorphic robots may benefit and suffer at the hands of humans (e.g., affirmations of personhood, compromising bodily integrity, veneration as gods, corruption by physical or information interventions...